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Data collection and reduction procedures, coherently structured in protocols, are necessary in gait analysis to make kinematic and kinetic measurements clinically comprehensible. The current protocols differ considerably for the marker-set and for the biomechanical model implemented. Nevertheless, conventional gait variables are compared without full awareness of these differences. A comparison was made of five worldwide representative protocols by analysing kinematics and kinetics of the trunk, pelvis and lower limbs exactly over the same gait cycles. A single comprehensive arrangement of markers was defined by merging the corresponding five marker-sets. This resulted in 60 markers to be positioned either on the skin or on wands, and in 16 anatomical landmark calibrations to be performed with an instrumented pointer. Two healthy subjects and one patient who had a special two degrees of freedom knee prosthesis implanted were analysed. Data from up-right posture and at least three gait repetitions were collected. Five corresponding experts participated in the data collection and analysed independently the data according to their own procedures. All five protocols showed good intra-protocol repeatability. Joint flexion/extension showed good correlations and a small bias among protocols. Out-of-sagittal plane rotations revealed worse correlations, and in particular knee abduction/adduction had opposite trends. Joint moments compared well, despite the very different methods implemented. The abduction/adduction at the prosthetic knee, which was fully restrained, revealed an erroneous rotation as large as 30 degrees in one protocol. Higher correlations were observed between the protocols with similar biomechanical models, whereas little influence seems to be ascribed to the marker-set.

This paper proposes a new protocol designed to track a large number of foot segments during the stance phase of gait with the smallest possible number of markers, with particular clinical focus on coronal plane alignment of the rear-foot, transverse and sagittal plane alignment of the metatarsal bones, and changes at the medial longitudinal arch. The shank, calcaneus, mid-foot and metatarsus were assumed to be 3D rigid bodies. The longitudinal axis of the first, second and fifth metatarsal bones and the proximal phalanx of the hallux were also tracked independently. Skin markers were mounted on bony prominences or joint lines, avoiding the course of main tendons. Trajectories of the 14 markers were collected by an eight-camera motion capture system at 100 Hz on a population of 10 young volunteers. Three-dimensional joint rotations and planar angles were calculated according to anatomically based reference frames. The marker set was well visible throughout the stance phase of gait, even in a camera configuration typical of gait analysis of the full body. The time-histories of the joint rotations and planar angles were well repeatable among subjects and consistent with clinical and biomechanical knowledge. Several dynamic measurements were originally taken, such as elevation/drop of the medial longitudinal arch and of three metatarsal bones, rear-foot to fore-foot rotation and transverse plane deformation of the metatarsus. The information obtained from this protocol, consistent with previous clinical knowledge, enhanced our understanding of the dynamics of the human foot during stance.

We studied the respiratory output in five subjects exposed to parabolic flights [gravity vector 1, 1.8 and 0 gravity vector in the craniocaudal direction (Gz)] and when switching from sitting to supine (legs bent at the knees). Despite differences in total respiratory compliance (highest at 0 Gz and in supine and minimum at 1.8 Gz), no significant changes in elastic inspiratory work were observed in the various conditions, except when comparing 1.8 Gz with 1 Gz (subjects were in the seated position in all circumstances), although the elastic work had an inverse relationship with total respiratory compliance that was highest at 0 Gz and in supine posture and minimum at 1.8 Gz. Relative to 1 Gz, lung resistance (airways plus lung tissue) increased significantly by 52% in the supine but slightly decreased at 0 Gz. We calculated, for each condition, the tidal volume changes based on the energy available in the preceding phase and concluded that an increase in inspiratory muscle output occurs when respiratory load increases (e.g., going from 0 to 1.8 Gz), whereas a decrease occurs in the opposite case (e.g., from 1.8 to 0 Gz). Despite these immediate changes, ventilation increased, going to 1.8 and 0 Gz (up to approximately 23%), reflecting an increase in mean inspiratory flow rate, tidal volume, and respiratory frequency, while ventilation decreased (approximately -14%), shifting to supine posture (transition time approximately 15 s). These data suggest a remarkable feature in the mechanical arrangement of the respiratory system such that it can maintain the ventilatory output with small changes in inspiratory muscle work in face of considerable changes in configuration and mechanical properties.

The volume-pressure relationship of the lung was studied in six subjects on changing the gravity vector during parabolic flights and body posture. Lung recoil pressure decreased by approximately 2.7 cmH(2)O going from 1 to 0 vertical acceleration (G(z)), whereas it increased by approximately 3.5 cmH(2)O in 30 degrees tilted head-up and supine postures. No substantial change was found going from 1 to 1.8 G(z). Matching the changes in volume-pressure relationships of the lung and chest wall (previous data), results in a decrease in functional respiratory capacity of approximately 580 ml at 0 G(z) relative to 1 G(z) and of approximately 1,200 ml going to supine posture. Microgravity causes a decrease in lung and chest wall recoil pressures as it removes most of the distortion of lung parenchyma and thorax induced by changing gravity field and/or posture. Hypergravity does not greatly affect respiratory mechanics, suggesting that mechanical distortion is close to maximum already at 1 G(z). The end-expiratory volume during quiet breathing corresponds to the mechanical functional residual capacity in each condition.

Chest wall mechanics was studied in four subjects on changing gravity in the craniocaudal direction (G(z)) during parabolic flights. The thorax appears very compliant at 0 G(z): its recoil changes only from -2 to 2 cmH(2)O in the volume range of 30-70% vital capacity (VC). Increasing G(z) from 0 to 1 and 1.8 G(z) progressively shifted the volume-pressure curve of the chest wall to the left and also caused a fivefold exponential decrease in compliance. For lung volume <30% VC, gravity has an inspiratory effect, but this effect is much larger going from 0 to 1 G(z) than from 1 to 1.8 G(z). For a volume from 30 to 70% VC, the effect is inspiratory going from 0 to 1 G(z) but expiratory from 1 to 1.8 G(z). For a volume greater than approximately 70% VC, gravity always has an expiratory effect. The data suggest that the chest wall does not behave as a linear system when exposed to changing gravity, as the effect depends on both chest wall volume and magnitude of G(z).

To study pulmonary arteriolar vasomotion in control conditions and in the transition to hydraulic edema, changes in subpleural pulmonary arteriolar diameter and perivascular interstitial volume were evaluated in anesthetized spontaneously breathing rabbits. Images of subpleural pulmonary microvessels were recorded in control conditions and for up to 180 min during a 0.5 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1) intravenous saline infusion through an intact parietal pleural window. Images were digitized and analyzed with a semiautomatic procedure to determine vessel diameter and perivascular interstitial thickness from which interstitial fluid volume was derived. In control vessels, the diameter of approximately 30-, approximately 50-, and approximately 80-microm arterioles and the perivascular interstitial thickness were fairly stable. During infusion, the diameter increased maximally by 20% in approximately 30 microm vessels, was unchanged in approximately 50 microm vessels, and decreased by 25% in approximately 80-microm arterioles; the perivascular interstitial volume increased by 54% only around 30-microm microvessels. In papaverine-treated rabbits, all arterioles dilated and a larger increase in perivascular interstitial thickness was observed. The data suggest that the opposite vasomotor behavior of 30- and 80-microm arterioles during development of mild edema may represent a local specific response of the pulmonary microcirculation to reduce capillary pressure in the face of an increased transendothelial fluid filtration, thus counteracting progression toward severe edema.