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An unsettled question in attachment theory and research is the extent to which children's attachment patterns with mothers and fathers "jointly" predict developmental outcomes. In this study, we used individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis to assess whether early attachment networks with mothers and fathers are associated with children's internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems. Following a pre-registered protocol, data from 9 studies and 1,097 children (mean age: 28.67 months) with attachment classifications to both mothers and fathers were included in analyses. We used a linear mixed effects analysis to assess differences in children's internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems as assessed via the average of both maternal and paternal reports based on whether children had two, one, or no insecure (or disorganized) attachments. Results indicated that children with an insecure attachment relationship with one or both parents were at higher risk for elevated internalizing behavioral problems compared with children who were securely attached to both parents. Children whose attachment relationships with both parents were classified as disorganized had more externalizing behavioral problems compared to children with either one or no disorganized attachment relationship with their parents. Across attachment classification networks and behavioral problems, findings suggest (a) an increased vulnerability to behavioral problems when children have insecure or disorganized attachment to both parents, and (b) that mother-child and father-child attachment relationships may not differ in the roles they play in children's development of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems. [This article was co-authored by the Collaboration on Attachment to Multiple Parents and Outcomes Synthesis.]

Father involvement contributes uniquely to children's developmental outcomes. The antecedents of father involvement among unmarried, African American fathers from rural areas, however, have been largely overlooked. The present study tested a conceptual model linking retrospective reports of childhood trauma and early adulthood social instability to father involvement among unmarried, African American men living in resource-poor, rural communities in the southeastern United States. We hypothesized these factors would influence father involvement indirectly, via DNA methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). A sample of 192 fathers participated in 3 waves of data collection in early adulthood. Fathers reported on social instability at Wave 1; OXTR methylation was assessed via saliva samples at Wave 2; and measures of father involvement, retrospective childhood trauma, and quality of the fathers' relationships with their children's mothers were collected at Wave 3. Structural equation modeling indicated that childhood trauma was related directly to reduced levels of father involvement and to increased social instability. Social instability was associated with elevated levels of OXTR methylation, which in turn predicted decreased father involvement. The indirect effect from social instability to father involvement via OXTR methylation was significant. These associations did not operate through fathers' relationship with the child's mother and remained significant even accounting for associations between interparental relationship quality and father involvement. Findings suggest that OXTR methylation might be a biological mechanism linking social instability to father involvement among unmarried, African American fathers in vulnerable contexts and underscore the detrimental influence of childhood trauma on father involvement.

Background: Teen pregnancy is associated with increased risk of school dropout, employment challenges and long-term poverty; these risks are exacerbated for foster youth who are at elevated risk for teen pregnancy. Sex education and relationship education can facilitate the development of attitudes and skills associated with behaviors that reduce risky sexual behaviors. However, research on sex education with foster youth is limited as is research exploring the potential benefits of combining relationship education with sex education. Objective: This study examines variations in the experiences and outcomes of non-foster youth (n = 160) and foster youth (n = 165) who participated in a federally funded teen pregnancy prevention program that included both relationship and sex education. Methods: Path analysis models examined the relationship between several exogenous variables (i.e., youth characteristics, pre-program risky sexual behavior, program experience) and three endogenous variables (i.e., post-program perceived change in intercourse, condom use, and contraceptive use intentions). Multi-group analyses were used with foster youth status as a moderator to determine if the model was invariant by foster youth status. Results: Although foster youth entered programming with elevated rates of risky sexual behavior, both groups reported positive program experiences and safer sexual behavior intentions post-programming. Conclusion: Regardless of their elevated rates of risky sexual behavior prior to receiving programming, foster youth, like non-foster youth, may benefit from both relationship and sex education. For foster youth specifically, their positive program experience and reduced intentions to engage in risky sexual behaviors is an encouraging finding that contrasts with existing literature.

Prior research into the factors which contribute to religious development in adolescence has primarily focused on either societal or familial forces. The current study seeks to illuminate the role played by more mid-ranged, faith-based structures such as religious congregations and the faith traditions in which they operate. Using hierarchical linear modeling and a multi-dimensional approach to adolescent religiosity, the current study provides evidence that religious communities (both at the local and institutional level) play an important role in religious development from adolescence to emerging adulthood. Specifically, findings indicate that while parental transmission efforts significantly predict subsequent religiosity in every dimension, engagement with a religious congregation also predicts future levels of external religious practice, religious exclusivity, and belief in the supernatural. Furthermore, affiliation with a faith tradition that more highly prioritizes youth integration predicts future levels of personal religious practice. Implications for religion researchers, parents, and religious communities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parent-child conversations about shared events may facilitate important aspects of psychosocial development through the family's references to emotions. Although past research has begun examining features of speakers and topics that predict emotion talk in these conversations, the potential contribution of personality traits has been overlooked. The current study investigated whether parental personality and participant gender were related to emotion talk during conversations between parents and their 5-year-old children. Results revealed discussion differences as a function of gender and discussion topic. Moreover, higher levels of trait Social Closeness in mothers corresponded to their richer emotional talk during discussions, particularly when conversing with daughters.

An individual participant data meta‐analysis was conducted to test pre‐registered hypotheses about how the configuration of attachment relationships to mothers and fathers predicts children's language competence. Data from seven studies (published between 1985 and 2014) including 719 children (Mage: 19.84 months; 51% female; 87% White) were included in the linear mixed effects analyses. Mean language competence scores exceeded the population average across children with different attachment configurations. Children with two secure attachment relationships had higher language competence scores compared to those with one or no secure attachment relationships (d =.26). Children with two organized attachment relationships had higher language competence scores compared to those with one organized attachment relationship (d =.23), and this difference was observed in older versus younger children in exploratory analyses. Mother–child and father–child attachment quality did not differentially predict language competence, supporting the comparable importance of attachment to both parents in predicting developmental outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the associations between narrative coherence, the 5Cs of positive youth development, and cultural self-construals among 91 Turkish emerging adults (48 females, 42 males, and 1 other) aged between 18 and 29 (M age = 23.01, SD =.52). Emerging adults partook in a life story interview to share three important narratives involving parental interactions that were assessed for causal and thematic coherence. Participants also self-reported on their positive development (competence, confidence, character, caring, and connection) and cultural self-construals (autonomy, relatedness, and autonomy relatedness). Results of path analysis revealed that high causal coherence in narratives was associated with lower levels of competence, confidence, and connection, whereas high thematic coherence was linked to higher levels of competence, confidence, and connection. Further, we examined the role of cultural self-construals in moderating the link between narrative coherence and the 5Cs. Thematic coherence was related to decreased caring when autonomy was high and relatedness was low. Thematic coherence was also related to increased connection only when autonomy was low and relatedness was high. Moreover, causal coherence was related to decreased caring and connection for emerging adults with highly autonomous self-construals. Similarly, causal coherence was associated with lower levels of confidence for emerging adults with high autonomous-related self-construals. Implications for research with Turkish emerging adults are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined how child temperament was related to parents' time spent accessible to and interacting with their 2-year-olds. Bivariate analyses indicated that both fathers and mothers spent more time with temperamentally challenging children than easier children on workdays, but fathers spent less time with challenging children than easier children on non-workdays. After accounting for work hours, some associations between temperament and fathers' workday involvement dropped to non-significance. For fathers, work hours also moderated the relation between irregular temperament and workday play. For mothers, work hours moderated the relation between both difficult and irregular temperament and workday interaction. Mothers also spent more time with girls (but not boys) who were temperamentally irregular. Results speak to the influence of child temperament on parenting behavior, and the differential construction of parenting roles as a function of child characteristics and patterns of work. (Contains 3 figures and 3 tables.)

This study examined associations between supportive coparenting and infant-mother and infant-father attachment security. Observed and parent-reported coparenting, and observed maternal and paternal sensitivity were assessed in a sample of 68 families with 3.5-month-old infants. Infant-mother and infant-father attachment security were assessed in the Strange Situation Procedure at 12 and 13 months of age, respectively. Observed and reported supportive coparenting were associated with greater attachment security in the infant-father, but not the infant-mother, attachment relationship. The link between observed coparenting and infant-father attachment remained after accounting for paternal sensitivity. Furthermore, child gender moderated some associations between coparenting and infant-parent attachment security. Amongst families with boys, observed and reported supportive coparenting were related to greater infant-mother and infant-father attachment security, respectively. Coparenting was unrelated to infant-mother or infant-father attachment security amongst families with girls. Results highlight a possible link between the coparental and father-child relationships and the need to consider both parent and child gender when examining associations between family functioning and attachment. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

The present research examined five-year-old children's psychological self-concepts. Non-linear factor analysis was used to model the latent structure of the children's self-view questionnaire (CSVQ; Eder, 1990), a measure of children's self-concepts. The coherence and reliability of the emerging factor structure indicated that young children are capable of meaningfully reporting about their own emotions and personalities. Moreover, these self-reports from five-year-olds converged with maternal perceptions of child personality. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of emergent personality, continuity/discontinuity in personality assessment across the lifespan, and self-concept formation in early childhood.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether mothers' beliefs about the role of the father may contribute to mothers influencing the quantity of father involvement in their children's lives. Participants were 30 two-parent families with children between the ages of 2 and 3 years. A combination of self-report and interview data were collected from both mothers and fathers. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that fathers' perceived investments in their parental roles and actual levels of paternal involvement are moderated by mothers' beliefs about the role of the father. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for future research on parenting identity and maternal gatekeeping as well as the development of parenting programs for fathers.

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the direct and indirect effects of early parenting on later parental school involvement and student achievement. The sample, pulled from the 1st and 2nd waves of the Child Development Supplement data set of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, consisted of 390 children age 2-5 at Time 1 and their families. Fathers' and mothers' participation in 5 dimensions of early parenting behaviors was assessed at Time 1, and later parental school involvement and student achievement were assessed at Time 2. Although early paternal and maternal parenting behaviors were not directly related to later student achievement, differences were revealed in the pattern of relationships between early parenting and later parental school involvement for fathers and mothers. In addition, fathers' later school involvement was found to be negatively related to student achievement, whereas maternal school involvement was found to be positively related to student achievement. These findings provide partial support for the hypothesized differential relationship between fathers' and mothers' early parenting and later student achievement. Keywords: father involvement, early parenting, achievement

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2008.00268.x Byline: ELIZABETH A. CANNON (*), SARAH J. SCHOPPE-SULLIVAN (*), SARAH C. MANGELSDORF ([dagger]), GEOFFREY L. BROWN ([dagger]), MARGARET SZEWCZYK SOKOLOWSKI ([double dagger]) Keywords: Maternal Gatekeeping; Fathering; Coparenting; Transition to Parenthood; Idealization; Communion Abstract: The present study examined the role of prebirth parent characteristics as predictors of maternal gatekeeping (mothers' attempts to encourage or discourage fathers' interaction with their infant) and fathering behavior. Parents' idealization of their relationships within their families of origin, beliefs about the roles of fathers, and personality attributes (negative emotionality and communion) were assessed before their infant's birth. At 3.5 months postpartum, maternal gatekeeping behaviors (negative control, facilitation) and fathers' involvement and competence with their infants were assessed during observation of triadic play and child care. Results suggest reciprocal relations between maternal gatekeeping and fathering behavior. Furthermore, greater paternal communion was associated with greater paternal competence during play, whereas greater maternal communion was associated with lower paternal competence during child care. Greater maternal communion and greater maternal idealization related to fathers' lower relative involvement during play. As for maternal gatekeeping behavior, high negative emotionality in 1 parent was only accompanied by high levels of inhibitory maternal gatekeeping when the other parent had less progressive beliefs about the father's role. The implications of these findings for clinicians and practitioners are discussed. Abstract (French) RESUMEN El presente estudio examino el papel de las caracteristicas de los padres y las madres antes del nacimiento de su hijo como factores pronostico del control por parte de las madres (sus intentos de alentar o disuadir la interaccion de los padres con sus hijos) y la conducta paternal. La idealizacion por parte de los padres de sus relaciones en sus familias de origen, sus creencias sobre los roles de los padres, y sus caracteristicas personales (emocionalidad negativa y expresion de sentimientos) fueron evaluadas antes del nacimiento del nino. A los 3 meses y medio despues del parto, las conductas de control de las madres (control negativo, facilitacion) y la implicacion de los padres y su habilidad con sus hijos fueron evaluadas durante observaciones de interaccion triadica y atencion al bebe. Los resultados sugieren relaciones reciprocas entre el control materno y la conducta de los padres. Ademas, el hecho de que los padres compartiesen mas sus sentimientos se vio asociado con una mayor habilidad de estos durante las interacciones, mientras que la expresion de los sentimientos por parte de las madres se vio asociada a una menor habilidad de los padres en los cuidados del bebe. El hecho de que las madres compartiesen mas sus sentimientos e idealizasen mas se vio asociado a una menor implicacion relativa de los padres durante las interacciones. En cuanto a la conducta de control de las madres, una mayor emocionalidad negativa en los padres o las madres siempre se veia acompanada de altos niveles de control inhibidor por parte de las madres cuando sus parejas creian estar progresando menos en su papel como padres. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos resultados para los medicos y los profesionales de clinica.Palabras clave: control materno, paternidad, coparentalidad, transicion a la paternidad, idealizacion, compartir sentimientos Author Affiliation: (*)Department of Human Development and Family Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. ([dagger])Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL. ([double dagger])Naperville, IL. Article note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth A. Cannon, Department of Human Development and Family Science, The Ohio State University, 1787 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210. E-mail: cannon.104@osu.edu.

This study examined the parenting predictors of father-child attachment security in early childhood. Results suggest that multiple dimensions of fathers' parenting quality moderated the associations between father involvement, in its [...]

The present study examined the mediating role of pleasure in parenting in the link between fathers' attachment representations and paternal sensitivity among 138 father–infant dyads from a rural part of the southeastern United States. First-time fathers' attachment representations were assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) prenatally. Pleasure in parenting—a multidimensional construct assessing positive attitudes and beliefs toward the parenting role—was coded from fathers' interviews at 3 months. Paternal sensitivity was coded from father–infant play interactions at 12 months. Results indicated that fathers with secure–autonomous adult attachment representations showed more pleasure in parenting. In turn, fathers who took more pleasure in parenting also interacted more sensitively during father–infant interactions. Moreover, although the direct association between fathers' attachment representations and sensitivity was nonsignificant, the indirect effect from secure–autonomous representations to sensitivity via pleasure in parenting was significant. Findings suggest that first-time fathers' parenting attitudes may play a role in transmitting representations of early caregiving experiences to sensitive interactions with their own infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study examined the correlates of fathers' satisfaction with physical affection (SPA) in their marital relationship before and after the birth of a new baby. Both parents (N = 97) completed surveys assessing SPA, and fathers completed surveys assessing division of household labor and coparenting quality during the third trimester of pregnancy and again at 3 months post-birth. An actor-partner interdependence model revealed partner effects, such that mothers' SPA post-birth was predicted by fathers' SPA pre-birth but not viceversa. Cross-lagged path analyses indicated that fathers who have high SPA pre-birth reported more supportive coparenting post-birth. Furthermore, fathers who believed pre-birth that they would be more involved in child-related household labor had increased SPA after the birth of a new baby. Results are discussed in terms of implications for couple and family therapy, education for new fathers, as well as programs designed to support parents during the transition to parenthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined relations between father-child attachment security and both paternal sensitivity and fathers' pleasure in parenting. At 12 months of age sensitivity was coded from father-infant interactions and pleasure in parenting was coded from fathers' interviews assessing attitudes toward the parenting role. Father-child dyads participated in the Strange Situation Procedure assessing attachment relationship quality. Sensitivity was related to more pleasure in parenting, but neither variable alone predicted attachment security. However, pleasure in parenting moderated the association between sensitivity and attachment. Moreover, the concordance between sensitivity and pleasure in parenting differed markedly across attachment classifications. In secure relationships fathers showed strong concordance between sensitivity and pleasure in parenting. Fathers in avoidant relationships demonstrated high sensitivity coupled with low pleasure in parenting, whereas fathers in disorganized relationships showed low sensitivity coupled with high pleasure in parenting. Results speak to the importance of integrating cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of parenting in father-child attachment research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the longitudinal associations between fathers' observed parenting behaviors and father-infant attachment (n = 58 father-infant dyads). Fathers were observed playing with their infants at 9 months postpartum and were assessed for stimulating behaviors (i.e. physical and/or object stimulation), as well as their sensitivity and intrusiveness. When the infants were 12 to 18 months of age, fathers and infants participated together in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) to assess father-infant attachment security. Logistic regression analyses revealed that higher levels of paternal stimulation at 9 months postpartum were associated with greater odds of classification as a secure father-infant dyad. Additionally, fathers' observed intrusiveness at 9 months postpartum moderated this association; greater paternal stimulation was associated with significantly greater odds of father-infant attachment security at low and average levels of paternal intrusiveness, but not at high levels of paternal intrusiveness. This study provides new insight into the paternal behaviors that may foster secure father-infant attachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescent parents often maintain a coparenting relationship that is characterized by frequent conflict and unhealthy communication. However, in relationships with less conflict and more cooperation, adolescent mothers display well-being and greater self-acceptance, while young fathers are more likely to be involved with their children. Based on human, financial, and social capital theory that reinforces the influence of parents' investments on family processes and well-being, we examined how capital was related to coparenting behaviors, and how coparenting related to parental functioning. We examined data from 125 adolescent mothers who attended a program for pregnant/parenting teens. Using a latent profile analysis, we (1) identified patterns of coparenting; (2) examined social, financial and human capital resources; and (3) evaluated between-group differences in parental functioning. Results indicated four unique patterns of coparenting based on adolescent mothers' reports, which were associated with indicators of social, financial, and human capital and between-group differences in parental functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined associations between father involvement and father-child attachment security, and whether those associations differed as a function of timing (workday and nonworkday) and/or type (accessibility, caregiving, and play) of involvement. Eighty father-child dyads participated when children were approximately 3 years old. Fathers completed a time diary interview assessing the various forms of involvement, and attachment was assessed using the Attachment Q-Set (Waters, 1995) following 90 min of father-child observation in the home. On nonworkdays, father involvement in play predicted greater attachment security and involvement in caregiving was marginally associated with greater attachment security. On workdays, father involvement in caregiving was related to greater attachment security, whereas father involvement in play was related to less attachment security. Results were independent of observed paternal sensitivity and relevant demographic covariates. Findings highlight the differential impact of father involvement for the father-child attachment relationship depending on when involvement occurs and what types of activities fathers engage in. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the intergenerational transmission of fathering among young, African American fathers in rural communities. A sample of 132 African American young men living in the rural South reported on the quality of their relationship with their biological and social fathers in the family of origin, their own involvement with their young children, and relational schemas of close, intimate relationships. Results of path analyses supported the hypothesized mediational model, such that a better relationship with one's biological (but not social) father predicted increased father involvement in the next generation, and this association was partially mediated through positive relational schema after controlling for a range of covariates. Tests of moderated mediation indicated that the link between relational schema and father involvement was significantly stronger among fathers of girls than fathers of boys. Findings highlight the unique influence of close, nurturing father–child relationships for downstream father involvement, and the role of relational schemas as a mechanism for intergenerational transmission among young, rural, African American fathers of girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reflective functioning (RF) is a measure of mentalization-the capacity to think about one's own and others' thoughts and feelings and to understand the connections between mental states and behaviors. Previous research indicates a decline in marital quality across the transition to parenthood, and some studies have found that parents are less happy than non-parents. Thus, researchers have called for research into possible moderators of these patterns. RF may help couples navigate this transition by more easily taking each other's (and the infant's) perspective and understanding each other's behaviors. Much of the research on RF has focused on mothering behavior; research has not yet examined associations between RF and other family interactions. We examined associations between RF and marital and coparenting quality for both wives and husbands. Reflective functioning was coded from Adult Attachment Interviews conducted during pregnancy. We assessed marital quality at 3.5 months, and coparenting quality at 13 months, after the birth of the target child. Wives' higher RF was associated with higher levels of positive-and lower levels of negative-marital and coparenting interactions. Wives who were better able to reflect on their early experiences with their parents were involved in marital interactions that were more positive and supportive and less conflicted and undermining. Husbands' RF did not predict marital or coparenting quality. These findings highlight the importance of reflective functioning in understanding family functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little research has examined the legacy of early maternal care for later attachment representations among low-income and ethnic minority school-aged children. Using data from a sample of 276 rural, low-income, African-American families, this study examined associations between maternal care in infancy and children’s representations of attachment figures in middle childhood. Maternal care was coded from 10-min home-based observations at 6, 15, and 24 months of age. Representations of attachment figures were assessed using the Manchester Child Attachment Story Task at 6 years of age. Sensitive maternal care in infancy was not significantly related to attachment security or episodic disorganized behaviors in children’s representations. However, children exposed to more harsh–intrusive parenting during infancy displayed less secure representations of attachment figures in middle childhood and more episodic disorganized behaviors, even after controlling for numerous child and family contextual covariates. Findings inform conceptualizations of attachment formation among rural, low-income, African-American parent–child dyads. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite long-standing hypotheses that intimate partner violence ( IPV) may undermine children's ability to form secure attachment representations, few studies have empirically investigated this association. Particularly lacking is research that examines IPV and attachment during middle childhood, a time when the way that children understand, represent, and process the behavior of others becomes particularly important. Using data from a sample of African American children living in rural, low-income communities ( N = 98), the current study sought to address this gap by examining the association between physical IPV occurring early in children's lives and their attachment security during the first grade. Results indicate that, even after controlling for child- and family-level covariates, physical IPV was associated with a greater likelihood of being rated insecurely attached. This effect was above and beyond the influence of maternal parenting behaviors, demonstrating a unique effect of physical IPV on children's attachment representations during middle childhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation examined the structure of reflective functioning (RF) – an understanding of the links between mental states and behaviors – and adult attachment scales. Both RF and traditional adult attachment scales were coded based on 194 prebirth Adult Attachment Interviews (AAI). Correlational and factor analyses indicated considerable overlap between RF and traditional AAI coding. Exploratory factor analyses of RF and AAI state-of-mind scales indicated that RF loaded, along with coherence of mind, on the primary factor distinguishing between individuals categorized as secure and dismissing. These findings indicate substantial overlap between RF and AAI scales; however, the magnitude of the correlations between these scales indicates that they are not redundant. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Objective.This study examined ethnicity (African American, European American, and Lumbee American Indian) and child gender as moderators of gender differences in parents’ emotion socialization behaviors.Design.Mothers and fathers from two samples responded to questionnaires assessing self-expressiveness in the family (N = 196) or reactions to children’s negative emotions (N = 299).Results.Differences between mothers and fathers varied as a function of ethnicity. Mothers and fathers showed similar levels of negative expressiveness in European American and African American families, whereas fathers were more negatively expressive than mothers in Lumbee families. Mothers reported more supportive reactions than fathers among European Americans and Lumbees, but African American mothers and fathers reported nearly equal levels of supportive reactions. Parent gender × ethnicity interactions were further moderated by child gender. Mothers were generally more supportive of girls’ negative emotions than fathers across all ethnicities. For boys, however, parent gender differences in supportive reactions to negative emotions varied by ethnicity. Mothers were more supportive than fathers among European American parents of boys, but mothers were less supportive than fathers among African American parents of boys.Conclusions.Results highlight the contextualized nature of emotion socialization, and the need to consider ethnicity and child gender as influences on mothers’ and fathers’ gender-specific emotion socialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The objective of this study was to investigate whether an anti-spasticity medication can facilitate the effects of robotic locomotor treadmill training (LTT) to improve gait function in people with incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI). Methods: Individuals with chronic incomplete SCI were recruited and carried out a 4 week intervention of either locomotor treadmill training (LTT) alone (n = 26) or LTT combined with Tizanidine (TizLTT), an anti-spasticity medication (n = 22). Gait function was evaluated using clinical outcome measures of gait, speed and endurance. To better understand the underlying mechanisms of the therapeutic effects, maximal strength, active range of motion (AROM) and peak velocity (Vp) of ankle dorsi- and planter-flexor muscles were also measured. Differences were assessed using two-way mixed design analysis of variance. The number of subjects that achieved the minimal important difference (MID) for clinical scores was also measured for each group, and the results of those that did attain the MID were compared with those that did not. Results: Both LTT and TizLTT resulted in significant improvements in walking speed and dorsiflexion maximum strength, with no significant differences between them, using group-averaging analysis. However, using the MID analysis, a higher proportion of subjects in the TizLTT group achieved the MID for walking speed (40%) compared with LTT alone (13%). Those that achieved the MID for walking speed were significantly higher functioning at baseline than those that did not in the TizLTT group, and the change in walking speed was associated with the change in dorsiflexion peak velocity (R2 = 0.40; P < 0.05). Conclusion: Tizanidine appears tofacilitate the effects of LTT on gait function in individuals with chronic SCI that are higher functioning at baseline. We speculate that this may be due to restoration of inhibitory mechanisms by Tizanidine, resulting in greater stretch in the planterflexor muscles during the LTT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]