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Objectives: The answer to the question to what extent depressive symptoms which occur in the middle and late adolescence period affect the quality of life in adulthood., Methods: The sample group consisted of 308 adults out of 3,445 who had participated in a 2000 study of prevalence of depressive symptoms among students. 17 years later, letters were sent to all study participants with information about the purpose of the study and an original questionnaire, with quality of life and quality of social network scales (the Collaborative Research on Ageing in Europe Social Network Index - COURAGE-SNI and WHOQOL-AGE) attached., Results: The presence of depressive symptoms in the untreated population of adolescents is associated, in the case of women, with poorer education and fewer opportunities to work in adulthood compared to their non-depressive peers. In contrast, the men who were not depressive in adolescence take jobs in which they are more likely to earn a high income. An analysis of the quality of life showed statistically significant differences between men and women. In the group of non-depressive men, greater satisfaction with owned financial resources was observed. In the case of adult women, those who had been depressive in adolescence declared a sense of lower overall quality of life and satisfaction with the way of spending free time, satisfaction with achievement of life goals and owned financial means. Non-depressive women presented higher quality of social networks 17 years later., Conclusions: Long-term observation in our prospective study supports the hypothesis of a developmental character of adolescent depression.

Objectives: Assessment of predictive value of the occurrence of depressive symptoms during adolescence. For this purpose,the life history of untreated adolescents screened for the presence of depressive symptoms was assessed twice, at intervals of fifteen years, including an assessment of their health history, their family-related, occupational, material and social situation. The comparison of the fate of depressive adolescents with the fate of their non-depressive peers was aimed at answering the question about the influence of adolescent depression on health in adulthood., Methods: In 1985, a random sample of 1,035 people - students aged 15 and 17 - was examined for a screening diagnosis of adolescent depression. The Krakow Depression Inventory (KID) questionnaires version for 15-year-olds ("IOB1") and for 17-year-olds ("IOC1") were used. After 15 years, data on 238 people (23%) were obtained. In 2015, responses were obtained from 101 people (9.8% of those surveyed in 1985)., Results: An analysis of the results of a 30-year prospective study of the relationship between depressiveness in adolescence, in untreated adolescents, and the health and functioning in adulthood indicates that, contrary to predictions, the appearance of depression in this phase of development cannot be treated as a predictor of mental disorders later in life., Conclusions: Long-term observation in our prospective study supports the hypothesis of a developmental character of adolescent depression.

Increasing the requirements on telecommunications systems such as the need for higher data rates and connectivity via the Internet of things results in continuously increasing amounts of electromagnetic radiation in ever-higher telecommunications bands (up to terahertz). This can generate unwanted electromagnetic radiation that can affect the operation of electronic devices and human health. Here, we demonstrate that nonconductive and lightweight, graphene-based composites can shield more than 99.99% of the electromagnetic energy in the sub-THz range mainly via absorption. This contrasts with state-of-the-art electromagnetic radiation shielding materials that simply redirect the energy of the radiation from a protected area via conduction-based reflection mechanisms. This shifts the problem of electromagnetic pollution from one place to another. We have demonstrated that the proposed composites can be fabricated by industrial compatible methods and are characterized by specific shielding efficiency values that exceed 30 dB cm3 g-1, which is more than those for typical metals used today. Therefore these materials might help to solve the problem of electromagnetic environmental pollution.

The Israeli-Polish Mental Health Association (IPMHA) was founded in 2000. It is a unique organization as it is not only one of the many associations for mental health professionals but also a platform for people from distant countries who share an important and traumatic past. IPMHA members have been engaged in studies of consequences of massive trauma, intergenerational transmission of trauma and help for trauma survivors. Keeping in mind the obligation of mental health professions to contribute to an enlightened and tolerant society, the IPMHA members have been trying to deal with "the past in the present," investigating the roots of the harm caused by racial and ethnic hatred, anti-Semitism and other forms of social prejudice. The IPMHA activities included symposia with discussions facilitated by the use of the dynamic group formula. Some of the materials presented in the meetings were published in Polish professional journals. This article reports on the activities of the IPMHA with special focus on the accompanying emotionally loaded problems.

We discuss thin optical structures that allow chromatic aberrations to be avoided in the THz domain. The paper contains the theoretical considerations, computer modeling and experimental evaluation of the high order kinoform diffractive elements in the THz range. According to the obtained results application of the high order kinoforms enables broadband operation in the THz range.

The experimental and numerical evaluation of the shadow effect in kinoform diffractive gratings for the terahertz (THz) range is given. This effect limits the diffractive efficiency of dense gratings, which are the base of the elements suited for convenient beam focusing and imaging in THz. The observed effect of redirecting most of the incident energy into stray -1st diffractive order is observed and discussed. The presented results show the great significance of the shadow effect in selected kinoform gratings and prove the utility of the used methodology of numerical simulations.

Passive terahertz (THz) setups require optical elements with large diameters for optimal harvesting of weak signals. High f-number implies sophisticated aspheric designs to ensure optimal resolution and good energetic efficiency. Trial and error testing of such optics is expensive and numerical modeling is time consuming; hence, we propose extremely cheap diffractive lenses for THz made of regular paper. They are easy to manufacture even with large diameters, and the optical function can be easily customized, which can be used for initial experimental testing of THz setups. Characterization of the proposed diffractive lenses with time-domain spectroscopy is presented and discussed.

Aim: The aim of the article is to partially verify the theoretical concept of depressive symptoms in adolescents, based on KID IO "B1", as well as to check the accuracy of the questionnaire., Method: The KID results from an untreated sample population of 15-year-olds were statistically analysed. Of the 1118 KID IO "B1" questionnaires submitted, 594 (246 boys and 348 girls) underwent factor analysis, of which 297, i.e. half, gained a result higher than the diagnostic threshold for depression. In search of the presence of general factors, as well as to verify the principles used to categorise depressive symptoms according to clinical criteria, analysis of the factors using methods consisting of oblimin, quatrimax and varimax rotations was carried out separately and combined for both genders., Results: The following new factors were distinguished for boys: I--lowered mood, and anxiety, II--self-destruction, III--apathy, cognitive disturbances, IV--somatic symptoms, V--somatisation, apathy, self-destruction, VI--boredom and avoidance of social contact, and for girls: I--lowered mood, lack of consideration for future repercussions, II--lowered drive, learning difficulties, cognitive and motivational disturbances, III--anxiety, IV--dysphoria with self-destruction, V--self-destruction, VI--eating pattern disturbances., Conclusions: Depression, as derived from factor analysis of the KID IO "B1" questionnaire positions, is heterogeneous. Theoretical division of symptom groups, relating to the specific scale in the questionnaire, was confirmed to a very small degree through the analysis of the factors. The list of factors in genders differs. The groups of symptoms appearing in both genders gained from analysis are different in boys and girls with one exception, which may partially result from the different factor overviews of depressive symptoms in both genders.

Aim: To determine the extent to which mental disorders (depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders) and psychoactive substance use are prevalent among Krakow secondary school adolescents in the late adolescent phase., Method: A representative sample of the population of Krakow secondary school pupils was tested. Two-stage draw method identified a group of 1933 2nd form pupils of all types of secondary schools: grammar schools, technical schools and vocational schools (17-year-olds). They were tested using the following screening questionnaires: Beck Depression Scale, EAT-26 eating disorders scale, Obsessive-compulsive disorder (Leyton) scale and the author's drug questionnaire., Results: Girls declared symptoms of mental disorders twice as often as boys (41.2% vs. 22.7%). Among girls, the most common disorders were: depressive symptoms (33.6%), eating disorder symptoms (18.7%) and obsessive-compulsive disorders (5.4%). And in the boys group: depressive symptoms (22.7%), eating disorder (7.3%) and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (3.4%). Findings were obtained concerning the prevalence of substance use in the boys and girls group (73% vs. 68%), mainly alcohol, as well as alcohol and cigarettes and alcohol, cigarettes and drugs., Conclusions: The prevalence of mental disorders in the population of 17-year-olds is significant; it concerns especially depressive symptoms and eating disorder symptoms. A significant prevalence of psychoactive substance use was found in this age group, mainly alcohol and mixed type substance use: alcohol and cigarettes and alcohol, cigarettes and drugs.

Aim: The aim of this article is partial empirical verification of the depression image theoretical concept underlying the KID IO"C1" construction, and also, a check of the questionnaire's factor relevancy., Method: KID results of a study of an untreated population sample of 17-year-olds were analysed statistically. Out of 1823 questionnaires, 1349 were included in the analysis (560 filled in by boys and 789 girls by girls). Of these, 499 respondents received a screening diagnosis of depression. 474 sheets were rejected at random to standardise the distribution of the overall scale results. In search of the presence of a general factor and to verify the legitimacy of the division of depressive symptoms according to the clinical criterion, factor analyses were conducted using the principal components method with oblimin, quatrimax and varimax rotations separately and jointly for both sexes., Results: The following new factors were identified: I--pessimism, II--mood instability, III--difficulty in learning, IV--self-destruction, V--fear of the future, VI--eating problems., Conclusions: The analyses conducted only partially confirm the validity ofa clinical-picture based questionnaire. A non-compliance of a number of factors with the assumed questionnaire scales emerges. A non-uniform symptomatic depression image in late adolescence phase is confirmed. Two factors stand out decidedly: self-destructive behaviours and eating problems.

Aim: This study describes an attempt at finding out whether or not the adolescent depression image in the mid-adolescent phase is related to the social context of adolescence., Method: For the depression study, version IO "B1" of the Kraków Depression Inventory (KID) was used. The subject group included 13-year-old seventh-form primary school students in 1984 and first-form junior high school students in 2001, selected using two-stage draw. The analysis allowed for the outcomes of subjects with a screening diagnosis of depression. In 1984, the group comprised 150, and in 2001 - 388 students., Results: Statistical analysis revealed a significant increase in self-destructive symptoms in the 2001 population compared with the 1984 population (to a greater extent in girls than in boys). Girls in both populations displayed more intensified symptoms of mood disorder, anxiety and somatic symptoms, whereas in the boys' group, it was related to drive disorder symptoms., Conclusions: The changing social conditions affect the symptomatic depression image in adolescents. This change manifests itself in an externalization in self-destructive behaviours and an increase in depressive symptoms in the 2001 boys group.

Aim: The study aims to find out whether or not the image of depression in children has remained related to the changing social context within a period of fifteen years., Method: For the depression study, version AO "B1" of the Kraków Depression Inventory (KID) was used. The subject group included 10-year-old fourth-form Kraków primary school students selected in 1984 and 2001 by two-stage draw. The analysis included subjects with a screening diagnosis of depression. In 1984, this was a group of 160, and in 2001-200 persons., Results: Statistical analysis showed significant differences between the groups of pupils under study in 1984 and 2001 as far as the scale of mood disorder is concerned (a reduction in the intensity of symptoms in girls and an increase in boys) and somatic symptoms (increase of symptoms in girls and a reduction in the intensity of symptoms in boys). On other scales, no differences of statistical significance were found between the groups. CONCLUSIONS. The changing social conditions have a relatively low effect on the symptomatic depression image in preadolescent children.

Modern mental healthcare in Poland has its foundations in the 19th century, when the country was subject to three different organisational and legal systems - of the Austrian, Prussian and Russian Empires. These differences prevailed even after the First World War. Professionals lobbying for a mental health act had no success. The Second World War left mental healthcare with significant losses among its professional groups. More than half of all Polish psychiatrists lost their lives; some of them were exterminated as Jews, some as prisoners of the Soviets. The Nazi occupation in Poland had dramatic consequences for people with a mental disturbance, as Action T4 turned into genocide on the Polish territory. The majority of psychiatric in-patients were killed. After the Second World War, the mental health system had to be rebuilt, almost from scratch. Major political changes in the country across the second part of the 20th century and revolutionary changes in mental healthcare around the world influenced psychiatric services. The purpose of this paper is to describe mental healthcare in Poland today.

Unlabelled: Results of scarce epidemiological studies on depression in children are diverse and dependent of survey methodology as well as on the theoretical approach of the research. Those studies where the methods are comparable show that depression prevalence depends on the macrosocial situation and the adolescence stage., Aim: The study aimed to assess changes in depression prevalence in early-adolescents between 1984 and 2001. A presumption was made that the social situation in Poland had changed in the last 17 years., Method: In 2001 a representative sample of school attending 10 y.o. children was screened with KID AO "B I". The results were compared with those of a similar survey, using the same method, carried out in 1984., Results: Point prevalence index in 2001 appeared to be lower than in the survey in 1984 (27.7% versus 38.2%). This resulted exclusively from a significant decrease in depression among boys (31.0% versus 46.6%) and girls (23.9% versus 30.0%)., Conclusion: The obtained data allows for an interpretation of the findings as a result of macrosocial changes. Other hypotheses e.g. the influence of the adolescence timing and course require a longitudinal prospective study.

Aim: The aim of the study is an evaluation of the occurrence and dynamics of depression during mid-adolescence. It was conducted in prospective studies on a representative group of gymnasium school adolescents in large towns., Method: In a two-stage draw, a representative group of 1737, 13 year-old adolescents was chosen. They were surveyed by the Krakow Depression Inventory (KID) subsequently in the years 2001, 2002, 2003., Results: The point-prevalence of depression was respectively 24.6%, 24.5% and 26.6% for 13, 14 and 15 year-olds. The spread-out rate of depressive disorder in the studied group turned out to be relatively stable., Conclusion: Depression is more common amongst mid-adolescent girls than boys. Dynamics of the disorder, when studied throughout the three years show that amongst the mid-adolescent population, depression is a disorder of an unequivocal nature.

Aim: To assess changes in occurrence of depressive disorders during late adolescence a prospective epidemiological study was carried out., Method: Representative sample of 17 y.o. school adolescents (N=2094) was screened for depression with the Krakow Depression Inventory (KID) in 2001, 2002 and 2003., Results: Point prevalence of depression was found respectively: 27.27% for 17 y.o., 27.43% for 18 y.o., and 26.69% for 19 y.o. and was relatively stable in the sample studied., Conclusions: It was found that depression is more often in late-adolescent girls than in boys of the same age. The dynamics of depression across the years suggests a differentiated nature of the disturbance.

Unlabelled: Results of scarce epidemiological studies on depression in adolescents are diverse and dependent of survey methodology as well as on the theoretical approach of research. Those studies where the methods are comparable show that depression prevalence depends on the macrosocial situation and the adolescence stage., Aim: The study aimed to assess changes in depression prevalence in mid-adolescents between 1984 and 2001. A presumption was made that the social situation in Poland had changed in the last 17 years., Method: In 2001 a representative sample of school attending 13 y.o. adolescents was screened with KID-IO "B1". The results were compared with those of a similar survey, using the same method, carried out in 1984., Results: Point prevalence index in 2001 appeared to be lower than in the survey in 1984 (24.6% versus 31.6%). This resulted exclusively from a significant decrease in depression among girls (26.8% versus 42.2%)., Conclusion: The obtained data allows for an interpretation of the findings as being a result of macrosocial changes. Other hypotheses e.g. influence of the adolescence timing and course requires a longitudinal prospective study.

Aim: The aim of the study is to evaluate the changes in prevalence and dynamics of depression during puberty. It was conducted in prospective studies in a representative group of large-town primary school students., Method: A group of 1993, 10 year-old students were chosen in a two-stage draw. They were studied with the Karków Depression Inwentory (KID) in the subsequent years 2001, 2002, 2003., Results: The point prevalence of depression was respectively 29%, 30% and 26% for 10, 11 and 12 year-olds. The spread-out rate of depressive disorder was relatively stable., Conclusions: Depression is more common in pre-adolescent boys than girls. The dynamics of the disorder, when studied in these three years show that depression is a disorder with a very unequivocal course amongst the preadolescents.

Aim: The study was aimed at establishing the correlation between the socio-cultural context of adoelscence and symptoms of adolescent depression., Methods: The Kraków Depression Inventory (KID), version IO "C1" was administered to 17 year old. students of secondary schools in Kraków in 1984 (last transformation) and 2001 (12th year of socio-political transformation). The groups studied were selected on two-stage sampling. KID IO "C1" results of these students who were screened as depressive (n = 153 in 1984; n = 522 in 2001) were analysed., Results: Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in Mood Scale results (higher in girls vs. Boys; higher in girls in 2001 vs. 1984), Anxiety Scale (lower in 2001 vs. 1984 in both gender groups), Self-destruction Scale (higher in girls in 2001 vs. 1984; higher in boys vs. girls), Somatisation Scale (higher in girls vs. boys). Cognition and Activity Level Scale showed no significant differences., Conclusions: Changing socio-cultural conditions correlate with the symptomatic manifestation of adolescent depression especially with an increase of externalisation in self-destructive behaviour.

The aim of this paper was a reflection on the most significant events in Polish psychiatry in 2003. Reform in health care financing and its realisation in 2003 introduced a risk of inhibiting further development of mental health care. The endangerment is a result of allocation of resources, which is inadequate to real costs and promotes in-patient treatment. An additional risk is seen in a project of privatisation of health care institutions. Increasing orientation towards methodology of molecular biology, which is similar to a general global tendency, influences research in psychiatry. Nevertheless the low number of publications resulting from government sponsored studies is disturbing. The situation in forensic psychiatry calls for involvement and studies. Psychiatria Polska published a report indicating low standard of psychiatric expertise for courts and high probability of corruption. The same was reflected in mass media publications later on. Polish Psychiatric Association Board had appointed a special commission to study this problem.

Unlabelled: Results of scarce epidemiological studies on depression in adolescents are diverse and dependent of survey methodology as well as on the theoretical approach of researchers. Those studies where the methods are comparable show that depression prevalence depends on the macrosocial situation and the adolescence stage., Aim: The study aimed to assess changes in depression prevalence in mid-adolescents between 1984 and 2001. A presumption was made that the social situation in Poland had changed in the last 17 years., Method: In 2001 a representative sample of school attending 17 y.o. adolescents was screened with KID-IO"C1". The results were compared with those of a similar survey, using the same method, carried out in 1984., Results: Point prevalence indexes appeared to be similar as well as higher for girls in comparison with boys. However, dependence of depression prevalence and the type of the senior school has changed. In 1984 it was higher in senior schools preparing for university studies, while in 2001--in those which train in a skill., Conclusions: Earlier conceptualisations of adolescent depression as connected with social conditions making ways to adulthood difficult (e.g. unemployment) as well as high indexes of depression prevalence in adolescents living in regions with higher unemployment rates than in Kraków, allow for an interpretation of the findings as result of macrosocial changes. Other hypotheses e.g. influence of the adolescence timing and course require a longitudinal prospective study.

Increasing use of psychoactive substances and early age of initiation to them demand effective methods of prevention and early intervention. In epidemiological studies, 12, 15 and 19 years old students responded anonymously to the question of BDI and Substance Use Questionnaire. The analysis of 3446 sets of questionnaires revealed statistically significant coincidence of depression and use of alcohol and "narcotics" in girls and boys in all studied age groups and of depression and smoking in 12 y.o. boys. The findings allow for indication of depressive children and adolescents as a risk group of substance abuse and dependency development.

Significant achievements of neuroscience point out a role of stimulation in infant brain development. Attachment style is found to reflect in development of cortex--limbic system functional structures having this way fundamental influence on emotional development of the child and its future mental health. Styles of attachment are in this way transmitted from generation to generation. Before treatment methods based on these finding will be developed, prevention in a form of infant care and psychotherapy should be introduced.

Aim: The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the severity of extrapyramidal symptoms during treatment with olanzapine (10-20 mg) versus perphenazine (8-40 mg) using the Simpson Angus Scale (SAS). The secondary objective was to assess the safety profile and clinical efficacy of the investigated drugs., Material and Method: A total of 95 patients with schizophrenia who met the criteria for DSM-IV were randomized to a double-blind, 18 week prospective comparative trail conducted in Poland. The tolerance of treatment was assessed with the use of scales: BAS, SAS and UKU. The efficacy of treatment was evaluated with BPRS, PANSS and CGOI scales., Results: For olanzapine patients, the severity of extrapyramidal symptoms improved after 3 first weeks of treatment, and significantly decreased from the baseline to endpoint. Perphenazine patients showed an increase of extrapyramidal symptoms. The difference of the SAS scores change was statistically significant between olanzapine and perphenazine groups. Akathisia symptoms decreased significantly in the olanzapine group during the treatment period, whereas symptoms of akathisia increased in the perphenazine group. Statistically significant differences of mean change of BAS total score from baseline to endpoint were noted between treatment groups Treatment--emergent adverse events occurred more frequently in patients receiving perphenazine (46%), than in patients receiving olanzapine (17%). The proportion of patients complying with improvement criteria for CGI scale score was statistically greater in the olanzapine group (72.7%) than in the perphenazine group (47.9%). Results of this study showed that the tolerance profile in patients taking olanzapine is superior to perphenazine., Conclusions: Olanzapine was better tolerated than perphenazine. After olanzapine treatment more subjects fulfilled the criterion of improvement and schizophrenic symptoms were less severe than in patients treated with perphenazine.

The aim of this paper is a reflection upon the most important issues in Polish psychiatry in 2002. In the mental health care development, an unfavorable legal regulation on the profession of the psychologist was passed and another change in health care financing in Poland. The role of Polish psychiatrists in international actions inspired by the World Psychiatric Association could be noted, especially in the de-stigmatising "Open the doors", as well as the stance towards 2nd generation antipsychotics. A positive growing interest and tendency in post-graduate psychiatric training was noticed, especially constant training. The publication of a new, large clinical textbook on psychiatry was noted, leading the probable direction of post-graduate training and development of scientific research. Special attention was drawn to the return of neuro-surgical interventions in treatment resistant obsessive-compulsive disorders, namely the nonstandard position of stereotactic operations on the limbic system in these disorders. Such a position is the result of insufficient scientific documentation on the effectiveness of such procedures and weakly documented theoretical bases.

Aim: Assessment of impact of adolescent depression on the development of mental disorders, substance dependency and social pathology in adulthood, and difference of the risk between depression in early and middle adolescence., Method: In 1984 prevalence of depression was assessed in a representative sample of adolescent urban population. Kraków Depression Inventory (KID) was used as a screening tool. In 2000 all participants of the earlier phase of the study were informed by mail about the task of the project and asked to answer attached the questionnaire. Information on care was collected from district psychiatric hospitals and local intoxication centres. 985 letters were sent (introductory data about 50 persons were not complete). 50 letters were returned without an answer. 256 persons (168 women and 87 men) responded., Results: A statistically significant relation was observed between adolescent depression and worse general health condition and cigarette smoking. Mid-adolescent depression in men was related with a lack of significant partnership, while in women with motherhood and disrupted marriage. Early adolescent depression in women was related with less extended extra-familiar social relations. Women depressive in mid-adolescence, on the contrary, declared more relations of this kind., Conclusions: Adolescent depression screened by KID seems to influence a general health status and social relations, especially in women. The character of this impact is not clear. Gender is of a more important role in comparison with the stage of adolescence in which depression appeared.

Psychiatry defines itself as a medical discipline using achievements of biology and other sciences concerned with human kind. Its methodology is borrowed from them. Biological methodology seems to be more attractive taking onto account contemporary standards of science. But, answers to questions formulated by psychiatry appear to be not satisfactory due to reduction both biological and humanistic methodology requires. Nevertheless new achievements in both approaches open new horizons for research. The main difficulty for this direction is a solid wall erected between them in a course of psychiatry development.

History of undergraduate training in psychiatry at medical schools in Poland was briefly reviewed showing a traditional independence of chairpersons of psychiatry in forming programmes and deciding about forms of education. Since 1990 this independence has been controlled by the faculties and, to some extent only, regulated by the national curriculum in medicine. Goals, contents and forms of undergraduate training in psychiatry were examined (following Bilikiewicz's study in 1994) with the author's own questionnaire. Professors of psychiatry, respondents to the questionnaire were of very similar opinions in regard to the goals of training. At the same time, meaningful differences were found in the methods used, position of the subject in the curriculum and even time designed for psychiatry training (at some schools below the national minimum). There were also significant differences in the contents of the programme. The most important problem seems to be absence of child and adolescent psychiatry at some schools. Integration of psychiatry with other pre-clinical and clinical subjects was assessed too. The information received suggests that Polish professors of psychiatry approved of the way their subject had been integrated with others. This seems to be overestimation, especially if compared with the Kraków experience presented in a more detailed way.

Prospective longitudinal observation of children socially and emotionally immature and depressive at entering school was carried on till their early adolescence. The study's aim was to describe: 1. childhood depression dynamics, 2. developmental changes in depression, 3. factors related to the depression course, 4. relation of childhood depression to adolescence depression. A screening study of representative population of school entering children led to identification of a risk group followed-up 3 and 6 years later. The Kraków Depression Inventory (AO "B1" and IO "B1") was used to diagnose, and for analysis of depression. Results of the study revealed a tendency to chronic course of depression in the studied group. Data collected at the first and the second stage showed coincidence of the depression chronicity and a set of nonspecific factors of "biological vulnerability" on the one hand, and dysfunctional family on the other. The latter was characterized by unclear family boundaries and difficult relational individuation. Data collected at the third stage of the study showed persistence of depression in the same individuals. Entering adolescence seemed to have no impact on depression prevalence in the studied group. It was, however, evident that cognitive and general activity disturbances increased among those studied who were not diagnosed depressive in the second and third stage. This finding requires further studies.

Mental Health Act indicates childhood and adolescence as the periods of life requiring a special prophylactic, therapeutic and rehabilitative care. Planning future organization of mental health care for children and adolescents can be based on patterns developed in countries of longer tradition, as well as on suggestions of international bodies interested in improving health care. Desirable status, however, will remain at the project stage if the reality is not taken into account. Assessment of the particular community can be done with epidemiological studies which require highly trained professionals and are costly. Thus, epidemiological data can be used rather for modification of well developed care systems. Early start of training in mental health problems of children, adolescents and their families in undergraduate training of physicians seems to be very important, taking into account that development of specialized services requires support and cooperation of other doctors, e.g. general practitioners, and forms a background for postgraduate training in child and adolescent psychiatry. Professional, or rather multiprofessional associations of child and adolescent mental health care givers aiming at improvement of care system have a very important role in lobbying for changes essential for realization of any design.

A prospective follow-up study was conducted of a group of 32 children diagnosed at 7 years of age as socially and emotionally immature and depressive. In the three year follow-up a group found still depressive was compared with those no longer depressive. Biological vulnerability, early childhood development, family internal and external boundaries and child relational individuation were taken into account. Chronicity of childhood depression can be related to vulnerability and to family disfunction. Mutual interrelation of those factors requires further studies.

Prospective follow-up study of a group of 33 children diagnosed as socially and emotionally immature, and depressive at age 7 years were conducted. Results of assessment at 10 years of age revealed chronicity of depression in this group. Chronicity of depression was reflected in the change of symptomatology. The thesis about the dependence of depressive symptoms on the developmental stage was supported. Answers to the question about the nature of childhood depression should be looked for in farther longitudinal studies.

Human rights, an issue of political debates in the last decades, listed in the United Nations Declaration of 1946 are rooted in the humanistic tradition of philosophy and religion. The UN declared their universal character and made state organizations responsible for their observation. Among all human rights that for freedom is usually perceived as crucial. Psychiatry developed in Europe primarily a caring function. The medical model developed in psychiatry through the 19th c. supplied the criteria for medical diagnosis of mental disturbance, and elaborated a system of treatment which included long term hospitalization. Medicalization of psychiatry (recently coming back) is a force which gives courage to those who suffer, to their families, and to professionals as well. This power however, can be easily abused, when a psychiatrist adopts a position of someone who knows better that which is good for his/her patient. Legal regulations of the circumstances of psychiatric treatment, especially treatment against the patient's will should prevent the abuse of the mentally disturbed person's right for freedom. The goal is usually achieved by clear description of clinical and other conditions under which a person can be committed, and by establishing the committed person's right to claim the decision to be unjust. Poland is a country without legal regulation in the area of mental health (there are only administrative acts). For more than sixty years several projects on mental health law have been worked on. The last one which came to the Sejm (parliament) in 1980 was withdrawn by the "Solidarity" Trade Union. At present, the membership of Poland in international organizations makes an introduction of mental health law an obligation. Having no legal regulation, Polish psychiatry has been a self-regulating system. It is worth to note that even in the hard Stalinist period (1947-1956) there was no abuse of psychiatry for political reasons. The main reason for Polish psychiatry staying free from political abuse is seen in the role of internalized norm of human dignity. But others should also be taken into account. It was a specificity of the political situation that the ruling powers did not insist that psychiatrists cooperate. On the other hand the integration of the Polish psychiatric community was helpful in observing the rule of non-collaboration. One of the most important factors is seen as the experience and memory of NAZI crimes in the field of psychiatry in Poland. Extermination of psychiatric patients had to leave the feeling of the importance of psychiatrist's own responsibility.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The incidence of some risk factors of ischaemic heart disease (IHD) was investigated in a group of 91 type 2 diabetics. A group of 57 patients who had a myocardial infarction was compared with a control group of 34 diabetics without clinical and electrocardiographic signs of IHD. In the group of diabetics with IHD there was a significantly higher proportion of hypertonic patients (70%), as compared with the control group (47%). The diabetics with an infraction in the case-history had a significantly higher mean age and a longer mean duration of diabetes. There was not a significant difference between the two groups as regards mean values of cholesterol, triacylglycerols, blood sugar, urea, creatinine, proteinuria and cerebrovascular attacks. As to metabolic factors, there were significantly higher mean uric acid values in the whole group with a myocardial infarction in the case-history, whereby this increase was more marked in men with IHD. Regression analysis did not reveal a significant correlation between uric acid values and the serum cholesterol or triacylglycerol levels or the incidence of hypertension. A significant biserial correlation between the presence of myocardial infarction and uric acid serum levels persisted also after elimination of the effect of age and creatinine serum levels. Based on these results and analyses of data in the literature, the authors favour the view that uric acid is rather a marker than true risk factor of atherosclerosis in type 2 diabetics.

The aim of the epidemiologic studies on depression in children and adolescents is to elucidate the nature of the disorder, in particular to verify the hypothesis of the dependence between the nature of adolescence and the occurrence of depression. Subjects with depressive features were identified from the representative sample of junior-school population, as well as from the early- and middle adolescents. The data regarding the course of the development of depressive and non-depressive probands obtained from parents interview were compared. Significant differences were found in the course of the development of depressive and non-depressive children as well as probands in the middle phase of the adolescence. There were no specific features in the course of the development in juvenile patients with the onset of depression in the early adolescence phase. Therefore, depression is more frequent among children in whom the early biological and social development is more disturbed. The infantile central nervous system's damage causes higher risk for depression in childhood. Depression in the early adolescence phase may be recognized as a specific developmental reaction, possibly connected with psychoendocrinologic puberty crisis. The onset of depression in the middle adolescent phase is connected with the difficulties of realization of developmental tasks. The infantile central nervous system's damage increases the risk for depression in that particular phase of life.

Depression in children has an unfavourable influence on the psychosocial development of the individual, therefore it requires suitable therapeutic and prophylactic approach. The dependencies between school-age immaturity and the prevalence of depression in children were evaluated in the prospective study. The school maturity, and one year later the prevalence of depression were studied in a representative sample of 502 "0"-grade children from the large urban population. The school immaturity was found in 10.56% of probands. More common symptoms were: withdrawal and antisocial behaviour. Depression was found in 32.79% of first-grade students, more frequent children with adaptation difficulties, especially among school-immature boys. The premature biological development, the symptoms of organic brain damage, and low I.Q. do not explain sufficiently neither the school-immaturity nor the prevalence of depression in children. It was found that emotional and social immaturity to the school duties facilitates the onset of depression among I grade students, while the role of the family and school in the genesis of both phenomena studied requires further investigations.