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Summary: The dog breed Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen has a relatively high prevalence of idiopathic epilepsy compared to other dog breeds and previous studies have suggested a genetic cause of the disease in this breed. Based on these observations, a genome‐wide association study was performed to identify possible epilepsy‐causing loci. The study included 30 unaffected and 23 affected dogs, genotyping of 170K SNPs, and data analysis using plink and emmax. Suggestive associations at CFA13, CFA24 and CFA35 were identified with markers close to three strong candidate genes. However, subsequent sequencing of exons of the three genes did not reveal sequence variations, which could explain development of the disease. This is, to our knowledge, the first report on loci and genes with a possible connection to idiopathic epilepsy in Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen. However, further studies are needed to conclusively identify the genetic cause of idiopathic epilepsy in this dog breed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To investigate dogs with acute onset of intracranial signs suspected of stroke by primary veterinary clinicians, and establish possible differential diagnoses and long‐term outcome. In addition, serum C‐reactive protein and plasma cytokines were investigated as potential biomarkers of disease. Materials and Methods: All cases were evaluated by neurologic examination, routine haematology and biochemistry and measurement of serum C‐reactive protein, plasma cytokine concentrations (interleukin‐2, ‐6, ‐8, ‐10, tumour necrosis factor) and low‐field MRI. Results: Primary veterinarians contacted the investigators with 85 suspected stroke cases. Only 20 met the inclusion criteria. Of these, two were diagnosed with ischaemic stroke. Other causes were idiopathic vestibular syndrome (n=6), brain tumour (n=5) and inflammatory brain disease (n=2); in five cases a precise diagnosis could not be determined. Median survival times were: brain tumour, 3 days, idiopathic vestibular syndrome, 315 days, ischaemic stroke, 365 days and inflammatory central nervous system (CNS) disease, 468 days. The median plasma concentrations of interleukin‐2, ‐6, ‐8, ‐10 or tumour necrosis factor were not significantly increased in any of the diagnosis groups compared to healthy controls. Serum C‐reactive protein was higher in dogs with brain tumours and inflammatory brain disease but not above the upper bound of the reference interval. Clinical Significance: Dogs that present with acute onset intracranial disease may have ischaemic stroke but are more likely to have other causes. Many dogs with such acute onset of neurological dysfunction (brain tumours excluded) may recover within a couple of weeks despite their initial severe clinical appearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Seizures are common in dogs and can be caused by non-epileptic conditions or epilepsy. The clinical course of newly diagnosed epilepsy is sparsely documented. The objective of this study was to prospectively investigate causes for seizures (epileptic and non-epileptic) in a cohort of dogs with new-onset untreated seizures, and for those dogs with newly diagnosed epilepsy to investigate epilepsy type, seizure type and the course of disease over time, including the risk of seizure recurrence. Untreated client-owned dogs experiencing new-onset seizures were prospectively enrolled in a longitudinal observational study including clinical investigations and long-term monitoring at the Copenhagen University Hospital for Companion Animals. A baseline clinical assessment was followed by investigator/owner contact every eight weeks from inclusion to death or end of study. Inclusion of dogs was conducted from November 2010 to September 2012, and the study terminated in June 2014. Results: One hundred and six dogs were included in the study. Seventy-nine dogs (74.5%) were diagnosed with epilepsy: 61 dogs (77.2%) with idiopathic epilepsy, 13 dogs (16.5%) with structural epilepsy and five dogs (6.3%) with suspected structural epilepsy. A non-epileptic cause for seizures was identified in 13 dogs and suspected in 10 dogs. Four dogs in which no cause for seizures was identified experienced only one seizure during the study. In dogs with idiopathic epilepsy 60% had their second epileptic seizure within three months of seizure onset. Twenty-six dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (43%) completed the study without receiving antiepileptic treatment. The natural course of idiopathic epilepsy (uninfluenced by drugs) was illustrated by highly individual and fluctuating seizure patterns, including long periods of remission. Cluster seizures motivated early treatment. In a few dogs with a high seizure frequency owners declined treatment against the investigators advice. Conclusions: Epilepsy is the most likely diagnosis in dogs presenting with new-onset seizures. The course of idiopathic epilepsy is highly individual and might not necessarily require long-term treatment. This must be considered when advising owners about what to expect with regard to treatment and prognosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This report represents a scientific and working clinical consensus statement on seizure management in dogs based on current literature and clinical expertise. The goal was to establish guidelines for a predetermined, concise, and logical sequential approach to chronic seizure management starting with seizure identification and diagnosis (not included in this report), reviewing decision-making, treatment strategies, focusing on issues related to chronic antiepileptic drug treatment response and monitoring, and guidelines to enhance patient response and quality of life. Ultimately, we hope to provide a foundation for ongoing and future clinical epilepsy research in veterinary medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Canine cognitive dysfunction ( CCD) is an age-dependent neurodegenerative condition dominated by changes in behavioral patterns. Cohort studies investigating cognitive status in dogs are lacking. Objectives To investigate cognitive function, progression of age-related behavioral changes, survival, and possible biomarkers of CCD in aged dogs. Animals Fifty-one dogs >8 years old; 21 with no cognitive deficits, 17 with mild cognitive impairments ( MCI) and 13 with CCD. Methods Longitudinal study. Recruitment period of 12 months and an observational period of 24 months including a baseline and 3 planned subsequent assessments. Cognitive status was determined using validated questionnaires. Plasma Aβ-peptides were quantified using commercial ELISA assays and cytokines by a validated immunoassay. Results Signs characterizing dogs with CCD were aimless wandering, staring into space, avoid getting patted, difficulty finding dropped food and anxiety. Thirty-three percent of dogs with a normal cognitive status progressed to MCI and 22% classified as MCI progressed to CCD during the study period. For 6 dogs diagnosed with CCD, signs of cognitive dysfunction increased with time. A diagnosis of CCD did not affect survival. The level of plasma Aβ42 was significantly increased ( P < .05) in the CCD group (92.8 ± 24.0 pg/mL) compared to the MCI (77.0 ± 12.3 pg/mL) and normal group (74.9 ± 10.0 pg/mL), but no significant differences in concentrations of systemic inflammatory markers were detected. Conclusions Canine cognitive dysfunction is a progressive disorder with an individual variability in the rate of cognitive decline and clinical signs. Plasma Aβ42 seems to be an interesting plasma biomarker of CCD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Syringomyelia ( SM) is common in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel ( CKCS). Dogs with syringes express clinical signs or might be clinically silent. Objectives To investigate the prevalence and heritability of symptomatic SM, the association between clinical signs and magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI) findings, and long-term outcome. Animals All CKCS registered in the Danish Kennel Club in 2001 (n = 240). Methods A cross-sectional questionnaire-based prevalence study validated by telephone interviews and clinically investigated clinical signs of SM. Dogs were 6 years at the time of investigation. A prospective observational litter study including clinical investigations, MRI and 5-year follow-up of symptomatic and asymptomatic siblings. Heritability was estimated based on the scale of liability in the study population and litter cohort. Results The cross-sectional study estimated a prevalence of symptomatic SM at 15.4% in the population. Thirteen symptomatic and 9 asymptomatic siblings participated in the litter study. Spinal cord syringes were confirmed in 21 of 22 littermates (95%). Syrinx diameter and mean syrinx : spinal cord ratio were significantly correlated with clinical signs ( P < .01). Estimated heritability of symptomatic SM was 0.81. Symptomatic SM motivated euthanasia in 20%. Dogs with syringes, which expressed no clinical signs at the age of 6, remained asymptomatic in 14/15 cases (93%). Conclusions and Clinical Importance The prevalence of symptomatic SM is high and genetics have a high impact on clinical disease expression. Further investigations of factors influencing the outbreak threshold of clinical signs of SM are desirable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Although a common neurological disorder in dogs, long-term outcome of epilepsy is sparsely documented. Objectives To investigate risk factors for survival and duration of survival in a population of dogs with idiopathic epilepsy or epilepsy associated with a known intracranial cause. Animals One hundred and two client owned dogs; 78 dogs with idiopathic epilepsy and 24 dogs with epilepsy associated with a known intracranial cause. Methods A retrospective hospital based study with follow-up. Dogs diagnosed with epilepsy between 2002 and 2008 were enrolled in the study. Owners were interviewed by telephone using a structured questionnaire addressing epilepsy status, treatment, death/alive, and cause of death. Results Median life span was 7.6 years, 9.2 years, and 5.8 years for all dogs, and dogs with idiopathic epilepsy or dogs with epilepsy associated with a known intracranial cause ( P < .001), respectively. Survival time for dogs with idiopathic epilepsy was significantly ( P = .0030) decreased for dogs euthanized because of epilepsy (median: 35 months) compared to dogs euthanized for other reasons (median: 67.5 months). Neutered male dogs with idiopathic epilepsy had a significant ( P = .031) shorter survival (median: 38.5 months) after index seizure compared to intact male dogs (median: 71 months). Treatment with two antiepileptic drugs ( AED′s) did not negatively influence survival ( P = .056). Conclusion and Clinical Importance Dogs with idiopathic epilepsy can in many cases expect a life span close to what is reported for dogs in general. In dogs where mono-therapy is not sufficient, the need for treatment with two AED′s is not linked to a poor prognosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Canine cognitive dysfunction ( CCD) is a neurodegenerative condition affecting geriatric dogs and sharing several characteristics with human Alzheimer's disease ( AD). CCD manifests as alterations of behavioral patterns and daily routines. Clinical signs are associated with neurodegenerative changes (eg, cortical atrophy and amyloid-beta deposits). Objectives To investigate clinical characteristics, survival, and risk factors with CCD. Vitamin E was investigated as a potential marker of CCD. Methods Ninety-four dogs >8 years of age were investigated with a validated CCD questionnaire and allocated to CCD, borderline CCD (b- CCD) and non- CCD groups. The dogs were included in 2008-2009 and followed up in an observational study until follow-up in 2012. Results Four key clinical signs dominated in dogs with CCD: sleeping during the day and restless at night, decreased interaction, disorientation at home, and anxiety. A number of borderline CCD cases developed into CCD over time indicating that a prodromal stage of CCD may exist. CCD did not influence survival negatively. Small breeds did not show better survival than large breeds ( P = .055) and there was no difference between sexes ( P = .99). Conclusions and Clinical Importance A few key questions addressing sleep-wake cycle, interaction, and signs of confusion and anxiety can be used as a clinical marker of CCD. Special attention should be paid to anxiety in dogs with CCD because it may be especially stressful to both dog and owner. Dogs with CCD seem to have a good chance of living a full lifespan if supported by the veterinarian and the owner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Belgian Shepherds have focal genetic epilepsy. The prevalence of epilepsy has been estimated as 9.5% in the breed and as 33% in the family investigated. Dogs with epilepsy might have an increased risk of premature death. Objective/Hypothesis To investigate survival and selected risk factors for premature death in a Belgian Shepherd family with genetic epilepsy. Animals One hundred ninety-nine related Belgian Shepherds. Methods Longitudinal observational study, 2009-2011. Follow-up telephone interviews were all conducted using a structured questionnaire addressing epilepsy, including seizure history and phenomenology, possible remission, possible death, and cause of death. Results The life span of epileptic dogs was not significantly shortened by the presence of epilepsy ( P = .87). Epilepsy was the predominant cause of death in the population (19/75 = 25%) and epilepsy-related deaths accounted for 70% (19/27) of all deaths in the group of dogs with epilepsy. Two probable sudden unexpected deaths related to epilepsy occurred in dogs with generalized seizures. Cluster seizures occurred in 33% (17/51) but did not significantly influence the life span of epileptic dogs. Dogs with epilepsy had an epilepsy remission proportion of 13.7%. Conclusion and Clinical Importance The Belgian Shepherds investigated in the present study display a focal genetic epilepsy with an overall benign course. The life span was not significantly affected by the presence of epilepsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Epilepsy with a genetic background is increasingly being identified. In certain dog breeds, epilepsy occurs with a higher prevalence than the estimate of 1-2% reported in the general dog population. Hypothesis The Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen ( PBGV) experiences an increased occurrence of epilepsy compared to the general dog population. Animals The target population consisted of all 876 PBGV dogs registered in the Danish Kennel Club from January 1, 1999 to December 31, 2008. The study population included 820 dogs that met the inclusion criteria. Methods A population study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of epilepsy in the Danish PBGV population. A mailed questionnaire was used to detect possible signs of epilepsy. The information was subsequently validated by telephone interviews of positive and possible positive responders and a negative responder control group, using an extensive questionnaire developed to detect epilepsy. Dogs evaluated as epilepsy positive after the telephone interview were offered a clinical investigation. Results The prevalence of epilepsy was estimated to be 8.9% (42/471) in the PBGV population. Average age of onset was 26.3 months. Sex and mode of response did not affect the prevalence, but a strong litter effect was seen. Among euthanized dogs, epilepsy was the predominant cause (6/45 = 13.3%). Conclusion and Clinical Importance Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen dogs experience an increased risk of epilepsy characterized by a relatively early onset and dominated by focal seizures with and without secondary generalization. With an estimated prevalence of 8.9% and substantial clustering within litters, a genetic factor associated with epilepsy is suspected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To establish the mode of inheritance and describe the clinical features of epilepsy in the Belgian shepherd, taking the outset in an extended Danish dog family (199 individuals) of Groenendael and Tervueren with accumulated epilepsy. Methods: Epilepsy positive individuals (living and deceased) were ascertained through a telephone interview using a standardised questionnaire regarding seizure history and phenomenology. Living dogs were invited to a detailed clinical evaluation. Litters more than five years of age, or where epilepsy was present in all offspring before the age of five, were included in the calculations of inheritance. Results: Out of 199 family members, 66 dogs suffered from epilepsy. The prevalence of epilepsy in the family was 33%. Fifty-five dogs experienced focal seizures with or without secondary generalisation, while four dogs experienced primary generalised seizures. In seven dogs, seizures could not be classified. The mode of inheritance of epilepsy was simple Mendelian. Clinical Significance: This study identified that the Belgian shepherd suffers from genetically transmitted focal epilepsy. The seizure phenomenology expressed by family members have a strong resemblance to what has been reported for familial partial (focal) epilepsy in humans with variable foci with suggestion of linkage to chromosome 2 and chromosome 22q12. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this letter, the evolution of the stimulated Raman scattering effect on pulse amplification for an Yb-doped double-clad fiber amplifier is investigated. It is experimentally demonstrated that the generated Raman-Stokes pulses occur together with the signal pulse, which causes severe distortion of the output signal pulse. The signal and Raman spectral components are discriminated and their temporal evolution dependence on peak power is analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Aim: To assess the efficacy of pregabalin monotherapy in Cavalier King Charles spaniels with spontaneous syringomyelia and scratching due to assumed central neuropathic pain. Materials and methods: A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study approved by the Danish Medicines Agency. Client-owned pet-dogs (bodyweight: eight to twelve kg) with quantifiable spontaneous scratching and MRI confirmed syringomyelia. Treatment with pregabalin, 150 mg BID for 21 days, a 48-hour wash-out period and placebo BID for 21 days or vice versa. Primary outcome: video-monitored number of scratching events during 10 minutes of exercise in six cases so far. Results: Still blinded, the six cases can clearly be separated into two symptomatic different groups with a mean relative reduction in scratching episodes of 49% (range 33-66). Discussion: The underlying mechanisms of central neuropathic pain in patients (dogs as well as humans) are still unknown. Effective treatment in pet dogs is challenging since no evidence-based protocols are published. The present study potentially results in an evidence-based recommendation and offers a comparator substance for future clinical trials in canine patients with central neuropathic pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Treatment of canine epilepsy is problematic. Few antiepileptic drugs have proven efficacy in dogs and undesirable adverse effects and pharmacoresistance are not uncommon. Consequently, the need for investigation of alternative treatment options is ongoing. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy and tolerability of levetiracetam as mono-therapy in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. The study used a prospective single-blinded parallel group design. Twelve client-owned dogs were included and were randomised to treatment with levetiracetam (30 mg/kg/day or 60 mg/kg/day divided into three daily dosages) or phenobarbital (4 mg/kg/day divided twice daily). Control visits were at days 30, 60 and then every 3 months for up to 1 year. Two or more seizures within 3 months led to an increase in drug dosage (levetiracetam: 10 mg/kg/day, phenobarbital: 1 mg/kg/day). Five of six levetiracetam treated dogs and one of six phenobarbital treated dogs withdrew from the study within 2–5 months due to insufficient seizure control. In the levetiracetam treated dogs there was no significant difference in the monthly number of seizures before and after treatment, whereas in the phenobarbital treated dogs there were significantly ( P  = 0.013) fewer seizures after treatment. Five phenobarbital treated dogs were classified as true responders (≥50% reduction in seizures/month) whereas none of the levetiracetam treated dogs fulfilled this criterion. Adverse effects were reported in both groups but were more frequent in the phenobarbital group. In this study levetiracetam was well tolerated but was not effective at the given doses as mono-therapy in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceptions of cancer care are impacted by many factors and differ among individuals. Patients generally want consistent support, effective communication, accessible treatments, and information to manage physical, emotional, and psychosocial needs. Black/African American cancer survivors have expressed concerns about providers ignoring the social and financial implications of cancer care and neglecting to address the generations of mistrust between minority communities and the healthcare system. There is limited information about these perceptions as they relate specifically to radiation therapy which we aim to address with this study. Female breast cancer survivors identifying as Black/African American within the metropolitan Milwaukee area were eligible to participate in a semi-structured interview guided by a demographic questionnaire, a life narrative account, and a residential history. Participants were purposively sampled by neighborhood racial and ethnic composition (majority Black, minority Black, and racially diverse communities) to ensure a diversity of experiences. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using a codebook developed and refined based on a conceptual model. Individuals worked in assigned pairs to open code each transcript. Data coded as "clinical presentation" or "treatment/healthcare" were pulled and reviewed for discussion of radiation therapy. Within these codes, further thematic analysis was performed to breakdown perceptions of this treatment modality. Fifty Black women were interviewed, 25 from majority, 7 from diverse, and 18 from minority communities. In discussing radiation therapy, six key themes emerged: emotional reactions, logistics of daily treatment, social barriers, side effects, general positive experiences, and general negative experiences. Emotional reactions included feelings of fear, anger, and being overwhelmed. Social barriers related to family obligations, transportation, distance from a treatment center, and racism. Commonly discussed side effects included fatigue, dermatitis, impacts on reconstruction, and long-term cardiotoxicity. Women living in majority Black communities were more likely to discuss side effects and general positive experiences while other themes were more equally explored by majority, minority, and diverse community members alike. Black women have diverse and varied perspectives of radiation therapy during breast cancer treatment. Anticipated themes surrounding logistics, side effects, and overall emotions of treatment were observed. Unique to their experiences, Black women have faced racism and an increased burden of social barriers during their treatment. Further studies exploring the perspectives of Black female cancer survivors are needed to optimize quality of care and outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Syringomyelia (SM) and myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD) are highly prevalent in Cavalier King Charles spaniels (CKCS). Cardiac status in CKCS with and without SM is currently unknown., Objectives: To investigate the association between SM and MMVD severity in CKCS and CKCS with SM with and without clinical signs of SM., Animals: Fifty-five CKCS: 40 with SM (22 symptomatic and 18 asymptomatic) and 15 without SM., Methods: A combined retrospective and prospective study. MRI and echocardiography were used to diagnose SM and MMVD, respectively. The association between SM and MMVD severity (left ventricle internal diameter in diastole normalized to bodyweight [LVIDDN] and left atrium to aortic ratio [LA/Ao]) were tested using multivariable linear regression analysis adjusting for sex and age., Results: Overall, no significant difference in LVIDDN and LA/Ao was found between CKCS with or without SM. However, CKCS with symptomatic SM had significantly smaller LVIDDN (1.45 [1.30-1.50]) (median [IQR]) and LA/Ao (1.20 [1.10-1.28]) compared to CKCS with asymptomatic SM (1.60 [1.50-1.90] and 1.40 [1.20-1.75]) as well as CKCS without SM (0.24 [0.03-0.45] and 0.30 [0.05-0.56]) (all P values <.03)., Conclusions and Clinical Importance: An association between MMVD and SM was not confirmed in this cohort of CKCS, indicating that MMVD and SM do not co-segregate. However, CKCS with symptomatic SM had smaller left ventricle and atrial size compared to CKCS with asymptomatic SM and CKCS without SM., (© 2024 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)

Background: Syringomyelia (SM) is a prevalent inherited developmental condition in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCSs) with Chiari-like malformation (CM), accompanied by a variety of clinical manifestations, including signs of neuropathic pain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard in SM diagnosis. However, it is desirable to establish clinical predictors that can identify CKCSs with a large clinical syrinx that needs treatment, as some owners cannot afford or lack access to MRI. The aims of the study were to investigate owner-reported clinical signs of SM and clinical predictors of a large clinical syrinx, using predictive values of significant signs, individually and in combinations. Eighty-nine CKCSs participated in this retrospective study. Based on MRI diagnosis, dogs were distributed into three groups: CM without syrinx or with a maximum transverse width < 2 mm (n = 13), CM with small syrinx 2.00-3.99 mm (n = 26) and CM with large syrinx ≥4 mm (n = 50). A structured investigator-owner interview using a standardized questionnaire was used to collect data regarding clinical signs of CM and SM. The statistical tests Pearson's chi-square, Fisher's Exact and Spearman's rank order were used to assess the difference in owner-reported signs between groups. For signs with significant differences, positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV) were calculated., Results: Following clinical signs were reported significantly more frequent in dogs with a large syrinx: phantom scratching, bilateral scratching of the neck or shoulder, aversion when that area is touched, or exacerbation of clinical signs when the dog is emotionally aroused. Each individual sign had a high PPV, indicative of a large clinical syrinx. The PPV increased further when the signs phantom scratching, aversion to touch to the head, neck or shoulder, and a preferred head posture during sleep were present in combination., Conclusions: Specific clinical signs can be used individually and in combination as clinical predictors of a large clinical syrinx in CKCSs with CM and SM. General practitioners can utilize this information to identify CKCSs with a large syrinx to initiate necessary treatment. This is particularly useful in cases where access to or affordability of an MRI diagnosis is limited., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

In this article, it is shown experimentally that a planar laser-generated ultrasound source with a hard reflective backing will generate higher acoustic pressures than a comparable source with an acoustically matched backing when the stress confinement condition is not met. Furthermore, while the source with an acoustically matched backing will have a broader bandwidth when the laser pulse is short enough to ensure stress confinement, the bandwidths of both source types will converge as the laser pulse duration increases beyond stress confinement. The explanation of the results is supported by numerical simulations., (© 2023 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Abstract: Central neuropathic pain is a core clinical sign of syringomyelia in humans and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel (CKCS) dogs. This histopathological study used spinal cords from CKCS dogs with syringomyelia to investigate the following conditions: (1) whether specific structural cervical spinal cord entities involved in nociception were affected by loss of neuroparenchyma or other pathological changes in CKCS dogs with pain-related behaviour and phantom scratching, (2) whether pain-related behaviour or phantom scratching correlated with loss of a specific anatomical entity or upregulation of glia cells, and (3) whether syringomyelia-related lesions affected specific functional spinal cord units of nociception. Spinal cord segments C1-C8 from CKCS dogs with magnetic resonance imaging-confirmed syringomyelia and clinical signs of pain and phantom scratching (n = 8) were compared with those from CKCS dogs without syringomyelia (n = 4). Dogs with unilateral scratching (n = 7) had a volume loss ( P = 0.043) of the dorsal horn laminae I-III in the ipsilateral side compared with the contralateral dorsal horn. A clear pattern of ipsilateral changes in the dorsal root entry zone characterised by deafferentation and reorganization of first-order axons into deeper laminae was found in cases with lateralised scratching. Significant changes in cell number density were not found for astrocytes or microglia, suggesting that the dogs represented cases of end-stage syringomyelia and thus could not reveal astrogliosis and microgliosis, which may be involved in the early phases of syrinx development and phantom scratching. The present relationship between clinical findings and dorsal horn and pain pathway pathology in CKCS dogs suggests that these dogs may be of interest as a supplement to experimental model pain research., (Copyright © 2022 International Association for the Study of Pain.)

Domestic dogs are superior models for translational medicine due to greater anatomical and physiological similarities with humans than rodents, including hereditary diseases with human equivalents. Particularly with respect to neurodegenerative medicine, dogs can serve as a natural, more relevant model of human disease compared to transgenic rodents. Herein we report attempts to develop a canine-derived in vitro model for neurodegenerative diseases through the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells from a 14-year, 9-month-old female West Highland white terrier with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Canine induced pluripotent stem cells-like cells (ciPSCLC) were generated using human OSKM and characterized by positive expression of pluripotency markers. Due to inefficient viral vector silencing we refer to them as ciPSCLCs. Subsequently, the ciPSCLC were subjected to neural induction according to two protocols both yielding canine neural progenitor cells (cNPCs), which expressed typical NPC markers. The cNPCs were cultured in neuron differentiation media for 3 weeks, resulting in the derivation of morphologically impaired neurons as compared to iPSC-derived human counterparts generated in parallel. The apparent differences encountered in this study regarding the neural differentiation potential of ciPSCLC reveals challenges and new perspectives to consider before using the canine model in translational neurological studies., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Chandrasekaran, Thomsen, Agerholm, Pessôa, Godoy Pieri, Sabaghidarmiyan, Langley, Kolko, de Andrade, Bressan, Hyttel, Berendt and Freude.)

Steroid responsive meningitis-arteritis (SRMA) in dogs causes severe inflammation of meningeal arteries leading to generalized meningitis with possible neurological signs, as well as a systemic inflammatory response. The etiology and exact pathogenesis are unknown, but an immune-mediated origin has been suggested and is supported by a positive response to immunosuppressive treatment with corticosteroids. A collection of clinical and paraclinical characteristics may be highly indicative of SRMA, but a single and conclusive diagnostic test or biomarker is currently not available. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the current understanding and knowledge on SRMA, with special emphasis on potential biomarkers and their applicability in the diagnostic work-up. Though no specific markers for SRMA currently exist, clinically useful markers include IgA and several acute phase proteins e.g. C-reactive protein. A frequent problem of both acknowledged and proposed biomarkers, is, however, their inability to effectively differentiate SRMA from other systemic inflammatory conditions. Other proposed diagnostic markers include genetic markers, acute phase proteins such as serum amyloid A, cytokines such as interleukin-17 and CC-motif ligand 19, endocannabinoid receptors and heat shock protein 70; these suggestions however either lack specificity or need further investigation., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Meningoencephalitides of Unknown Origin (MUO) comprises a group of non-infectious inflammatory brain conditions, which frequently cause severe neurological disease and death in dogs. Although multiple diagnostic markers have been investigated, a conclusive diagnosis, at present, essentially relies on postmortem histopathology. However, different groups of biomarkers, e.g. acute phase proteins, antibodies, cytokines, and neuro-imaging markers may prove useful in the diagnostic investigation of dogs with MUO. It appears from the current literature that acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein are often normal in MUO, but may be useful to rule out steroid responsive meningitis-arteritis as well as other systemic inflammatory conditions. In antibody research, anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) may play a role, but further research is needed to establish this as a consistent marker of particularly Pug dog encephalitis. The proposed diagnostic markers often lack specificity to distinguish between the subtypes of MUO, but an increased expression of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in necrotizing meningoencephalitis (NME) and interleukin-17 (IL-17) in granulomatous meningoencephalitis (GME) in tissue biopsies may indicate their potential as specific markers of NME and GME, respectively, suggesting further investigations of these in serum and CSF. While neuro-imaging is already an important part of the diagnostic work-up in MUO, further promising results have been shown with Positron Emission Tomography (PET) as well as proton resonance spectroscopy ( 1 H MRS), which may be able to detect areas of necrosis and granulomas, respectively, with relatively high specificity. This review presents different groups of established and potential diagnostic markers of MUO assessing current results and future potential., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis of central nervous system diseases. Prior training in this invasive procedure is essential to minimize the risk of harming animals. Because of this risk, stress and anxiety can influence the learning process. Simulators can be used to teach and learn invasive procedures. The aim of this mixed-methods study was to validate a CSF collection simulator and investigate students' perceptions of the simulator as an educational tool. The quantitative approach validated the simulator for face and content validity, and students provided a general evaluation of the simulator using surveys. The simulator's construct validity was measured by means of a global rating scale. Students' perceptions were investigated qualitatively using semi-structured interviews. Experts ( n = 13) confirmed the simulator's face and content validity. Students ( n = 16) evaluated the simulator as supportive of their learning. Results for construct validity demonstrated higher global rating scores from experts than from students. The scores for procedural performance and procedural knowledge and flow showed significant differences ( p ≤ .05). Analysis of interviews with students ( n = 10) revealed four main themes: emotions, learning process, evaluation of the model, and CSF collection procedure. In conclusion, this study validated the use of the CSF simulator as an educational tool that can help students overcome some of their anxiety in relation to performing an invasive procedure.

Background: Microglia contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis by clearing amyloid-β (Aβ) and driving neuroinflammation. Domestic dogs with age-related dementia (canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD)) develop cerebral amyloidosis like humans developing AD, and studying such dogs can provide novel information about microglial response in prodromal AD., Objective: The aim was to investigate the microglial response in the cortical grey and the subcortical white matter in dogs with CCD versus age-matched cognitively normal dogs., Methods: Brains from aged dogs with CCD and age-matched controls without dementia were studied. Cases were defined by dementia rating score. Brain sections were stained for Aβ, thioflavin S, hyperphosphorylated tau, and the microglial-macrophage ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1). Results were correlated to dementia rating score and tissue levels of Aβ., Results: Microglial numbers were higher in the Aβ plaque-loaded deep cortical layers in CCD versus control dogs, while the coverage by microglial processes were comparable. Aβ plaques were of the diffuse type and without microglial aggregation. However, a correlation was found between the %Iba1 area and insoluble Aβ 42 and N-terminal pyroglutamate modified Aβ(N3pE)-42. The %Iba1 area was higher in white matter, showing phosphorylation of S396 tau, versus grey matter. Perivascular macrophage infiltrates were abundant in the white matter particularly in CDD dogs., Conclusion: The results from this study of the microglial-macrophage response in dogs with CCD are suggestive of relatively mild microglial responses in the Aβ plaque-loaded deep cortical layers and perivascular macrophage infiltrates in the subcortical white matter, in prodromal AD.

Mutations in the N-myc downstream-regulated gene 1 (NDRG1) cause degenerative polyneuropathy in ways that are poorly understood. We have investigated Alaskan Malamute dogs with neuropathy caused by a missense mutation in NDRG1. In affected animals, nerve levels of NDRG1 protein were reduced by more than 70% (p< 0.03). Nerve fibers were thinly myelinated, loss of large myelinated fibers was pronounced and teased fiber preparations showed both demyelination and remyelination. Inclusions of filamentous material containing actin were present in adaxonal Schwann cell cytoplasm and Schmidt-Lanterman clefts. This condition strongly resembles the human Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 4D. However, the focally folded myelin with adaxonal infoldings segregating the axon found in this study are ultrastructural changes not described in the human disease. Furthermore, lipidomic analysis revealed a profound loss of peripheral nerve lipids. Our data suggest that the low levels of mutant NDRG1 is insufficient to support Schwann cells in maintaining myelin homeostasis., (Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A custom fibre laser designed as an excitation source for biomedical photoacoustic tomography has been developed. It is based on a custom-drawn large core diameter fibre (200 µm) that enables high pulse energies (∼10 mJ) to be achieved. The system can provide variable pulse durations (10 - 500 ns) and pulse repetition frequencies (100 Hz - 1 kHz), as well as arbitrary pulse bursts according to specific user defined sequences. The system is also compact and does not require external water cooling. This, along with the flexibility in the temporal characteristics of its output that it offers, will aid the translation of photoacoustic imaging to practical application in medicine and biology.

Objective: We aimed to assess the efficacy and benefit-risk profile of pregabalin (PGN) to reduce the clinical signs of central neuropathic pain (CNeP) as reflected by scratching episodes in dogs with symptomatic syringomyelia (SM)., Study Design: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study., Animals: A total of 12 client-owned Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (age, 1.1-7.4 years, bodyweight, 8.2-10.8 kg) with magnetic resonance imaging-confirmed SM and clinical signs of CNeP., Methods: Dogs were randomized to either PGN 150 mg or placebo for 25 days, followed by 48 hour washout period before crossover to the alternate phase of 25 days. The primary outcome was defined as number of scratching events during 10 minutes of video-recorded physical activity. Treatment effect was estimated using a generalized estimation equation model. Benefit-risk and quality of life assessments were obtained through owner interviews focusing on potential adverse events., Results: The treatment effect estimate was an 84% (95% confidence interval = 75-89%) reduction in mean number of scratching events relative to baseline compared with placebo (p < 0.0001). Owner-assessed satisfactory quality of life was status quo and rated as 'good' or 'could not be better' in six/11 dogs and improved in four/11 dogs. The most prevalent adverse events were increased appetite in nine/12 dogs and transient ataxia in nine/12 dogs. There was one dog withdrawn by the owner 7 days after crossover to PGN owing to persistent ataxia. No dogs needed rescue analgesia during the trial., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: PGN is superior to placebo in the reduction of clinical signs of SM-related CNeP in dogs. At a dose range of 13-19 mg kg -1 orally twice daily, the encountered adverse events were acceptable to all but one owner., (Copyright © 2019 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

With the aim of improving students' ability to handle the complexity of surgery, we introduced a creative assignment in a veterinary surgical course. We hypothesized that by using this active, inductive educational method, reflection, creativity and self-efficacy in student novice surgeons could be improved. During a companion animal surgical course an intervention group was investigated against a control group. Twenty-nine fourth-year students were instructed in ovariohysterectomy by classical lectures, while 23 fourth-year students were provided with creative materials and assigned to consider and illustrate how to perform the procedure themselves. Surgical performance was assessed for both groups using a modified Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS) while performing a simulated ovariohysterectomy. Furthermore, both groups were investigated with respect to how they would handle a specific hypothetical surgical complication. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 intervention-group students and were analyzed using thematic analysis. The intervention group showed a significantly better performance and needed significantly less help with the surgical complication than the control group students. Data from interviews furthermore demonstrated that students believed the creative intervention produced increased reflection, more creative initiatives, and a feeling of security before surgery. Our study results thus indicate that an educational tool which stimulates creative thinking can promote reflection, creativity, and self-efficacy in novice surgeons without compromising surgical performance.

Ischemic stroke is a condition increasingly recognized in dogs; however, the number of publications on dogs with ischemic stroke is still limited and hemostatic parameters are infrequently reported. D-dimer levels have been shown to be elevated in people with acute ischemic stroke compared to a healthy control population and it has been proposed that a normal D-dimer can be used to exclude thromboembolism in dogs. In this case series, we report hemostatic parameters, including D-dimer and thromboelastography (TEG) along with clinical and imaging findings for five dogs diagnosed with ischemic stroke. All dogs had a normal D-dimer concentration on presentation. A hypercoagulable state was identified in two dogs based on the results of the TEG, and was suspected in the remaining three cases based on a shortened TEG clot reaction time. Based on the findings in the present cases, a D-dimer within the normal reference range does not seem an appropriate negative predictor for canine ischemic stroke. The demonstration of a possible hypercoagulable state, as identified by the TEG, is an interesting finding which should be explored further to help reveal predisposing hypercoagulable conditions in dogs with ischemic stroke.

Background: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can be collected into ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or plain tubes. The EDTA content presumably contributes to a better cell preservation. EDTA, however, is reported to cause a false elevation in the total protein concentration and to dilute the CSF sample, thereby affecting the diagnostic interpretation. To the authors' knowledge, no validated studies support this view. The aim of this study was therefore to determine if the choice of tube (EDTA or plain) influences the results of the standard CSF analysis., Results: Thirty-two paired EDTA stabilised and plain CSF samples were included. There was no statistically significant difference in the semi-quantitative protein concentrations when comparing CSF samples from EDTA and plain plastic tubes (P > 0.99). The total nucleated cell count did not differ significantly between EDTA and plain tube samples (P = 0.85). There were no significant differences in the differential cell counts between the two tubes when evaluating polymorphonuclear cells (P = 0.90), lymphocytes (P = 0.84) and monocytes/macrophages (P = 0.86). Also, there was no significant difference in the preservation of cell morphology when evaluating cytological preparations from EDTA stabilised and plain tube samples (P = 0.45)., Conclusions: The collection of CSF into EDTA tubes does not influence the result of the standard CSF analysis. However, a presumed positive effect of EDTA on cell preservation could not be shown in the present study.

A homozygous mutation has been identified in the N-myc downstream-regulated gene 1 (NDRG1) in recent cases of polyneuropathy in Alaskan malamute dogs from the Nordic countries and USA. The objective of the present study was to determine if cases diagnosed 30-40 years ago with polyneuropathy in the Alaskan malamute breed in Norway had the same hereditary disease as the recent cases. Fourteen historical cases and 12 recently diagnosed Alaskan malamute dogs with hereditary polyneuropathy, and their parents and littermates (n = 88) were included in this study (total n = 114). After phenotyping of historical and recent cases, NDRG1 genotyping was performed using DNA extracted from archived material from five Norwegian dogs affected by the disease in the late 1970s and 1980s. In addition, pedigrees were analysed. Our study concluded that historical and recent phenotypic polyneuropathy cases were carrying the same NDRG1-mutation. The pedigree analysis showed that all affected Alaskan malamute cases with polyneuropathy could be traced back to one common ancestor of North American origin. By this study, a well-documented example of the silent transmission of recessive disease-causing alleles through many generations is provided, demonstrated by the re-emergence of a phenotypically and genetically uniform entity in the Scandinavian Alaskan malamute population.

We report an Yb-doped fiber master-oscillator power-amplifier (MOPA) system with the capability of selectively generating doughnut-shaped radially and azimuthally polarized beams with user-defined temporal pulse shapes. The desired output polarization was generated with the aid of a nanograting spatially variant half-waveplate (S-waveplate). The latter was used to convert the linearly polarized fundamental (LP 01 ) mode output from the preamplification stages to a doughnut-shaped radially polarized beam prior to the power amplifier stage. A maximum output pulse energy of ∼860  μJ was achieved for ∼100  ns pulses at 25 kHz with user-defined pulse shape for both radial and azimuthal polarization states. The polarization purity and beam propagation factor (M 2 ) were measured to be >12  dB and 2.2, respectively.

Volume measurements of the brain are of interest in the diagnosis of brain pathology. This is particularly so in the investigation hydrocephalus and canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD), both of which result in thinning of the cerebral cortex and enlarged ventricles. Volume assessment can be made using computed tomography or more usually magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). There is, however, some uncertainty in the interpretation of such volume data due to the great variation in skull size and shape seen in dog. In this retrospective study, we examined normal MRI images from 63 dogs <6 years of age. We used a continuous variable, the cranial index (CrI) to indicate skull shape and compared it with MRI volume measurements derived using Cavalieri's principle. We found a negative correlation between CrI and the ratio of cortical to ventricular volume. Breeds with a high CrI (large laterolateral compared to rostrocaudal cranial cavity dimension) had a smaller ratio of cortical to ventricular volume (low C:V ratio) than breeds with lower CrI skull types. It is important to consider this effect of skull shape on the relative volume estimates of the cerebral cortex and ventricles when trying to establish if pathology is present.

Inflammatory cytokines are potential modulators of infarct progression in acute ischaemic stroke, and are therefore possible targets for future treatment strategies. Cytokine studies in animal models of surgically induced stroke may, however, be influenced by the fact that the surgical intervention itself contributes towards the cytokine response. Community-dwelling domestic dogs suffer from spontaneous ischaemic stroke, and therefore, offer the opportunity to study the cytokine response in a noninvasive set-up. The aims of this study were to investigate cytokine concentrations in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in dogs with acute ischaemic stroke and to search for correlations between infarct volume and cytokine concentrations. Blood and CSF were collected from dogs less than 72 h after a spontaneous ischaemic stroke. Infarct volumes were estimated on MRIs. Interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and tumour necrosis factor in the plasma, CSF and brain homogenates were measured using a canine-specific multiplex immunoassay. IL-6 was significantly increased in plasma (P=0.04) and CSF (P=0.04) in stroke dogs compared with healthy controls. The concentrations of other cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor and IL-2, were unchanged. Plasma IL-8 levels correlated significantly with infarct volume (Spearman's r=0.8, P=0.013). The findings showed increased concentrations of IL-6 in the plasma and CSF of dogs with acute ischaemic stroke comparable to humans. We believe that dogs with spontaneous stroke offer a unique, noninvasive means of studying the inflammatory processes that accompany stroke while reducing confounds that are unavoidable in experimental models.

Background: Dogs develop spontaneous ischaemic stroke with a clinical picture closely resembling human ischaemic stroke patients. Animal stroke models have been developed, but it has proved difficult to translate results obtained from such models into successful therapeutic strategies in human stroke patients. In order to face this apparent translational gap within stroke research, dogs with ischaemic stroke constitute an opportunity to study the neuropathology of ischaemic stroke in an animal species., Case Presentation: A 7 years and 8 months old female neutered Rottweiler dog suffered a middle cerebral artery infarct and was euthanized 3 days after onset of neurological signs. The brain was subjected to histopathology and immunohistochemistry. Neuropathological changes were characterised by a pan-necrotic infarct surrounded by peri-infarct injured neurons and reactive microglia/macrophages and astrocytes., Conclusions: The neuropathological changes reported in the present study were similar to findings in human patients with ischaemic stroke. The dog with spontaneous ischaemic stroke is of interest as a complementary spontaneous animal model for further neuropathological studies.

Background: In dogs with ischaemic stroke, a very common site of infarction is the cerebellum. The aim of this study was to characterise neurological signs in relation to infarct topography in dogs with suspected cerebellar ischaemic stroke and to report short-term outcome confined to the hospitalisation period. A retrospective multicentre study of dogs with suspected cerebellar ischaemic stroke examined from 2010-2015 at five veterinary referral hospitals was performed. Findings from clinical, neurological, and paraclinical investigations including magnetic resonance imaging were assessed., Results: Twenty-three dogs, 13 females and 10 males with a median age of 8 years and 8 months, were included in the study. The Cavalier King Charles Spaniel (n = 9) was a commonly represented breed. All ischaemic strokes were located to the vascular territory of the rostral cerebellar artery including four extensive and 19 limited occlusions. The most prominent neurological deficits were gait abnormalities (ataxia with hypermetria n = 11, ataxia without hypermetria n = 4, non-ambulatory n = 6), head tilt (n = 13), nystagmus (n = 8), decreased menace response (n = 7), postural reaction deficits (n = 7), and proprioceptive deficits (n = 5). Neurological signs appeared irrespective of the infarct being classified as extensive or limited. All dogs survived and were discharged within 1-10 days of hospitalisation., Conclusions: Dogs affected by rostral cerebellar ischaemic stroke typically present with a collection of neurological deficits characterised by ataxia, head tilt, and nystagmus irrespective of the specific cerebellar infarct topography. In dogs with peracute to acute onset of these neurological deficits, cerebellar ischaemic stroke should be considered an important differential diagnosis, and neuroimaging investigations are indicated. Although dogs are often severely compromised at presentation, short-term prognosis is excellent and rapid clinical improvement may be observed within the first week following the ischaemic stroke.

In recent years, veterinary educational institutions have implemented alternative teaching methods, including video demonstrations of surgical procedures. However, the power of the dynamic visual input from videos in relation to recollection of a surgical procedure has never been evaluated. The aim of this study was to investigate how veterinary surgical students perceived the influence of different educational materials on recollection of a surgical procedure. Furthermore, we investigated if surgical technique was associated with a certain method of recollection or use of educational material. During a basic surgical skills course, 112 fourth-year veterinary students participated in the study by completing a questionnaire regarding method of recollection, influence of individual types of educational input, and homework preparation. Furthermore, we observed students performing an orchiectomy in a terminal pig lab. Preparation for the pig lab consisted of homework (textbook, online material, including videos), lecture, cadaver lab, and toy animal models in a skills lab. In the instructional video, a detail was used that was not described elsewhere. Results show that 60% of the students used a visual dynamic method as their main method of recollection and that video was considered the most influential educational input with respect to recollection of a specific procedure. Observation of students' performance during the orchiectomy showed no clear association with students' method of recollection but a significant association (p=.002) with educational input. Our results illustrate the power of a visual input and support prior findings that knowledge is constructed from multiple sources of information.

Aged companion dogs with canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) spontaneously develop varying degrees of progressive cognitive decline and particular neuropathological features correspondent to the changes associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) in humans. The aim of the present study was to characterize certain aspects of neuropathology and inflammatory markers related to aging and CCD in dogs in comparison with human AD. Fifteen brains from aged dogs with normal cognitive function, mild cognitive impairment, or CCD were investigated and compared with two control brains from young dogs and brain sections from human AD subjects. The neuropathological investigations included evaluation of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaque deposition (N-terminally truncated and pyroglutamyl-modified Aβ included), tau pathology, and inflammatory markers in prefrontal cortex. Cortical Aβ deposition was found to be only of the diffuse subtype as no dense-core or neuritic plaques were found. The Aβ deposition followed a progressive pattern in four maturation stages. Accumulation of the Aβ peptide was also observed in the vessel walls. Both immunohistochemically and biochemically measured levels of Aβ pathology in prefrontal cortex showed a consistent positive correlation to age but not to cognitive deficit severity. No evidence of neurofibrillary tau pathology was found. The level of pro-inflammatory cytokines was generally low and showed no significant association to cognitive status. The findings of the present study support the senescent dog with spontaneous cognitive dysfunction as a valuable non-transgenic model for further investigations of the molecular events involved in the neurodegenerative processes associated with aging and early stage AD, especially the Aβ-related pathology.

When veterinary students face their first live animal surgeries, their level of anxiety is generally high and this can affect their ability to recall the procedure they are about to undertake. Multimodal teaching methods have previously been shown to enhance learning and facilitate recall; however, student preferences for recollection methods when translating theory into practice have not been documented. The aim of this study was to investigate veterinary students' experience with recollection of a surgical procedure they were about to perform after using multiple methods for preparation. From a group of 171 veterinary students enrolled in a basic surgery course, 26 students were randomly selected to participate in semi-structured interviews. Results showed that 58% of the students used a visual, dynamic method of recollection, mentally visualizing the video they had watched as part of their multimodal preparation. A mental recipe was used by 15%, whereas 12% mentally visualized their own notes. The study provides new information regarding veterinary students' methods of recollection of surgical procedures and indicates that in Danish veterinary students, a visual dynamic method is the most commonly used. This is relevant information in the current educational situation, which uses an array of educational tools, and it stresses the importance of supporting the traditional surgical teaching methods with high-quality instructional videos.