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Grievance and opportunity theories dominate research on the causes of civil war. However, theoretical and empirical problems limit their ability to explain variation in conflict onset. We argue that these problems partly stem from treating them as largely independent explanations. We integrate grievance and opportunity into a unified theory and argue that they are complements that jointly predict conflict. We apply insights from the interstate war literature to develop and test a theory of conflict onset that argues that the probability of civil war increases as the disparity between relative power and the status quo distribution of benefits increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Collagen is an essential component of the structures involved in the erectile mechanism. Radiofrequency (RF) energy has been shown to renew and restore the spatial structural arrangement of collagen fibers and may improve erectile function of men suffering from erectile dysfunction (ED). Objective: To assess the feasibility, safety, and efficacy of low-intensity radiofrequency (RF) therapy in men with ED. Methods: Men with moderate & mild to moderate ED, with or without the use of PDE5-inhibitors were included. After instructions, each patient treated himself with the radiofrequency device (Vertica®), applying his selected individual RF intensity. Patients underwent, according to the protocol, 12 sessions of 30-minute treatments over 2 months. Patients were evaluated at baseline, 1, 3 and 6 months after treatment using validated questionnaires; International Index of Erectile Function (Full IIEF), IIEF-EF, and erection Hardness score (EHS), satisfaction (EDITS, BSW), and disease-specific quality and quality of life (QEQ, SQOL). In each session, patients filled safety and side-effect questions (pain, fever, burning, discomfort, urinary disorders). The Wilcoxon signed ranks test and the Marginal Homogeneity test were used for statistical processing. Results: Twenty-seven out of 28 men treated, were available for 6 months follow-up, mean age 59.2±9.7. The mean ED duration was 41.2±29 months. Mean baseline IIEF-EF was 16.8±1 and improved significantly to 24.8±1.6, 24.3±1.8, and 24.2±2.08 at 1, 3 and 6 months respectively (p<0.001). The Minimal Clinical Important Difference (MCID) criteria were met by 25/28 (89%) at 1-month follow-up and 20/27(74%) at 6-month follow-up (p<0.001). A statistically and clinically significant improvement was demonstrated in the Full IIEF and EHS scores at baseline and during follow-up. No correlation was found between IIEF improvement and the age of the patients. Borderline significance (p=0.05) was found between the duration of ED and IIEF-EF improvement. No side effects were reported and participants rated the device as very comfortable and easy to operate. Conclusions: The novel radiofrequency, home-use device for the treatment of ED shows promising results and the potential to improve erectile function. In this study, it was feasible and safe. Further high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to determine the long-term efficacy of the treatment. Disclosure: Yes, this is sponsored by industry/sponsor: Ohhmed, Israel. Clarification: No industry support in study design or execution. Any of the authors act as a consultant, employee or shareholder of an industry for: Ohhmed, Freya, Besins, Verility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cfr9I pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) is used on methicillin-resistance Staphylococcus aureus ST398 isolates and their PGFE profiles, protein A gene variable repeat regions (spa types) and types of the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) are compared. The combination of Cfr9I PFGE with spa and SCCmec typing has shown the heterogeneity of the series and is used for outbreak examinations and traceability studies of the MRSA ST398 emerging clone.

A 34-year-old woman presented after a year of slowly progressive difficulty walking. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed the presence of an arachnoid cyst pressing against the spinal cord. (The arachnoid is the middle of three membranes that enclose the brain and spinal cord.) Surgical decompression of the cyst halted the progression of her symptoms. The cyst was associated with arachnoiditis ossificans, which is a very rare condition. Calcification of the arachnoid is exceedingly common, and a majority of routine autopsies show some signs of calcification, or calcium deposition. Ossification is different, however; in ossification, actual bone is deposited in the arachnoid membrane. In the present case, the arachnoiditis ossificans was attributed to tuberculous meningitis which had occurred 20 years previously. At 14 years of age, the patient was comatose with tuberculous meningitis, which was confirmed by the culture of the causative organism, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, from the cerebrospinal fluid. After treatment with antibiotics for several years, she was regarded as cured and considered to have suffered no permanent damage. Arachnoiditis may be caused by a variety of conditions, including trauma, spinal anesthesia, and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Only two cases have been previously reported in which meningitis was mentioned. This is the first report of arachnoiditis ossificans being reported after tuberculous meningitis in which complete pathologic confirmation was obtained. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

We hypothesize that Delta-Notch signaling between ventral neural precursor cells specifies them for oligodendrocyte or motor neuron fates. To test this, we investigated regulation and function of a putative oligodendrocyte marker, olg2, in zebrafish, olg2 encodes a bHLH transcription factor similar to Neurogenin (Ngn)class proneural proteins. Prospective ventral neural tube cells transcribe olg2 uniformly by midgastrulation stage, before they express ngnl. At 24 h postfertilization, a discrete group of ventral neural cells express olg2; later, individual cells throughout the dorsoventral neural tube axis express olg2, a pattern consistent with the origin and movement of oligodendrocytes. Proliferative cells express olg2 and fate mapping revealed that cells that arise from olg2-expressing cells include motor neurons. Mutant analysis showed that olg2 expression requires Hedgehog signaling. Additionally, deltaA (dlA) mutant embryos initiate but do not maintain olg2 expression and conditional, ectopic expression of constitutively active Notch promotes ectopic olg2 expression independently of Hedgehog. By contrast, excess cells in d/A mutant embryos express ngn1, indicating that Notch activity inhibits ngn1 expression. Surprisingly, olg2 overexpression promotes formation of excess primary motor neurons whereas olg2 antisense morpholino oligonucleotides inhibit primary motor neuron development. We propose that olg2 expression, induced by Hedgehog, specifies a common pool of oligodendrocyte and motor neuron precursors and that Notch signaling promotes oligodendrocyte fate by inhibiting ngn1 and maintaining olg2 expression in a subset of precursors.

Notochord and floorplate, neighboring structures that occupy the vertebrate embryonic midline, are important for nervous system development as they are sources of molecules that pattern the spinal cord dorsoventral axis. Fate mapping studies show that notochord and floorplate precursor cells are close to one another at the onset of gastrulation. In Drosophila melanogaster, specification of neighboring cells for different fates is often dependent upon signaling mediated by the ligand Delta anti its receptor Notch. In zebrafish, cells at the dorsal margin of gastrulating embryos, where notochord and floorplate precursors arise, express Delta and Notch homologues. Embryos mutant for delta A have more notochord cells and fewer floorplate cells, as well as fewer hypochord cells, which lie beneath the notochord, than wild-type embryos. In contrast, wild-type embryos injected at early cleavage stage with deltaA mRNA have more floorplate and hypochord cells and lack trunk notochord. Based on these observations, we hypothesize that Delta-Notch signaling among midline precursor cells during gastrulation regulates their specification for floorplate, notochord, and hypochord fates. As one test of this hypothesis, we have chosen to conditionally express factors that may potentiate or inhibit Delta-Notch signaling. We will describe our preliminary mRNA injection experiments testing the effects of various constructs. Additionally, we will describe a zebrafish homologue of Hes-1, a putative transcriptional target of the Notch signaling pathway, show that floorplate and hypochord express this gene and that expression is reduced in deltaA mutant embryos.

Within the European activities for the 'Monitoring and Collection of Information on Zoonoses', annually EFSA publishes a European report, including information related to the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in Germany. Spatial epidemiology becomes here a fundamental tool for the generation of these reports, including the representation of prevalence as an essential element. Until now, choropleth maps are the default visualization technique applied in epidemiological monitoring and surveillance reports made by EFSA and German authorities. However, due to its limitations, it seems to be reasonable to explore alternative chart type. Four maps including choropleth, cartogram, graduated symbols and dot-density maps were created to visualize real-world sample data on the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in raw chicken meat samples in Germany in 2011. In addition, adjacent and coincident maps were created to visualize also the associated uncertainty. As an outcome, we found that there is not a single data visualization technique that encompasses all the necessary features to visualize prevalence data alone or prevalence data together with their associated uncertainty. All the visualization techniques contemplated in this study demonstrated to have both advantages and disadvantages. To determine which visualization technique should be used for future reports, we recommend to create a dialogue between end-users and epidemiologists on the basis of sample data and charts. The final decision should also consider the knowledge and experience of end-users as well as the specific objective to be achieved with the charts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong efforts are made to improve preparedness for the prevention and counteraction of possible deliberate release of highly pathogenic biological agents at national and international level. An objective risk assessment for highly pathogenic biological agents is urgently needed for the purpose of prioritizing measures, evaluating the vulnerabilities and supporting rapid decisions on a scientific base in case of an emergency. Hitherto, several differing ranking schemes were developed. In general, the purpose of such ranking schemes is a comparative classification of agents under consideration of different transmission paths as well as agents threatening human and/or animal health. The analysed prioritization methods differ from qualitative to (semi-)quantitative with each its benefits and disadvantages in preciseness of the result, complexity and duration of the assessment but also in comprehensibility. Mainly, risk was defined as the product of probability and impact. In this survey, factors frequently used for the assessment of the probability and impact of a deliberate agent release were identified. Main criteria for the probability of an application were the history of use, the accessibility of the agent and possible paths of introduction and contamination as well as the feasibility of agent production. For the estimation of the impact, mainly the agent's effects on human and/or veterinary public health, depending on the target population, were examined. This includes the morbidity and mortality rates as well as the severity of induced illness, possible measures for diagnosis, and treatment and prevention. Furthermore, the economic and socioeconomic consequences were considered. In this review, the authors give an overview on open-source publications dealing with risk ranking of biological agents by outlining the criteria that were applied for risk ranking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2009, 1462 Escherichia coli isolates were collected in a systematic resistance monitoring approach from primary production, slaughterhouses and at retail and evaluated on the basis of epidemiological cut-off values. Besides resistance to antimicrobial classes that have been extensively used for a long time (e.g. sulphonamides and tetracyclines), resistance to (fluoro)quinolones and third-generation cephalosporins was observed. While in the poultry production chain the majority (60%) of isolates from laying hens was susceptible to all antimicrobials tested, most isolates from broilers, chicken meat and turkey meat showed resistance to at least one (85-93%) but frequently even to several antimicrobial classes (73-84%). In the cattle and pig production chain, the share of isolates showing resistance to at least one antimicrobial was lowest (16%) in dairy cows, whereas resistance to at least one antimicrobial ranged between 43% and 73% in veal calves, veal and pork. Resistance rates to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid in isolates from broilers were 41.1% and 43.1%, respectively. Likewise, high resistance rates to (fluoro)quinolones were observed in isolates from chicken meat and turkey meat. In contrast, ciprofloxacin resistance was less frequent in E. coli isolates from the cattle and pig production chain with highest rate in veal calves (13.3%). Highest resistance rates to cephalosporins were observed in broilers and chicken meat, with 5.9% and 6.2% of the isolates showing resistance. In dairy cattle and veal, no isolates with cephalosporin resistance were detected, whereas 3.3% of the isolates from veal calves showed resistance to ceftazidime. Resistance to (fluoro)quinolones and cephalosporins in E. coli isolates is of special concern because they are critically important antimicrobials in human antimicrobial therapy. The emergence of this resistance warrants increased monitoring. Together with continuous monitoring of antimicrobial usage, management strategies should be regularly assessed and adapted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasing number of reported detections of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in food animals since 2007 has led to the assumption that there is an emerging zoonotic problem with livestock associated (la)MRSA potentially aggravating the MRSA problem in humans. It was the objective of the study to investigate, whether MRSA was present in clinical specimens of pigs collected at post-mortem since 2004 and to further characterize these isolates. We studied 138 isolates of S. aureus collected between 2004 and 2007 from various pathological lesions of pigs at necropsy. Potential MRSA were identified by growth on selective chromogenic media. Isolates were confirmed as MRSA using multiplex PCR. Confirmed isolates were spa- and SCC mec-typed and were tested for antimicrobial resistance. Overall, 60 (43%) S. aureus isolates were identified as MRSA. The majority (57/60) of the MRSA isolates found in the altered porcine tissues were spa-types associated with MRSA ST398. Three MRSA were ST97 isolates, a type that has not been described as an MRSA in pigs before. Other clonal complexes (ST9, ST30) dominated among the methicillin-sensitive S. aureus. MRSA were found in similar frequency in all 4 years. We assume that MRSA in pigs may have occurred earlier than 2004 and might be not really 'emerging', but rather have been overlooked until recently. The potentially causative role of the MRSA in the lesions warrants further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the prevalence of types of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in slaughter pigs in German abattoirs, nasal swabs were collected from a total of 1026 pigs in five abattoirs after stunning in the course of two studies, and examined for MRSA. Study 1 included four abattoirs; study 2 was carried out in one large abattoir. Isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility and characterised using spa-typing, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and typing of the staphylococcal cassette chromosome, SCCmec. Overall, MRSA was isolated from 70·8 per cent of 520 samples in study 1 and from 49·0 per cent of 506 samples in study 2. The proportion of positive samples varied substantially between the abattoirs in study 1. Most isolates belonged to spa-types t011 and t034 and SCCmec types III and V. MLST of selected isolates revealed that they were all MLST ST398. Besides β-lactams, 100 per cent of the isolates were resistant to tetracycline, 80·5 per cent were resistant to erythromycin and 80·7 per cent were resistant to clindamycin. Less than 5 per cent of the isolates were resistant to other antimicrobials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To evaluate the suitability of the commercially distributed Ridascreen® Verotoxin enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for detection of known genetic types of the Vero (Shiga) toxins 1 (Stx1) and 2 (Stx2) families and to determine its relative sensitivity and specificity. Methods and Results: The Ridascreen-EIA was compared with the Vero cell assay, a P1-glycoprotein receptor EIA and with stx gene-specific PCs for detection of Stx with 43 Shiga toxin-producing strains of Escherichia coli (STEC) reference strains and with 241 test strains. The Ridascreen-EIA detects strains producing Stx1 and variants Stx1c and Stx1d, as well as Stx2 and variants Stx2d1, Stx2d2, Stx2e, Stx2d, Stx2-O118 (Stx2d-ount), Stx2-NV206, Stx2f and Stx2g. The assay showed a relative sensitivity of 95·7% and a relative specificity of 98·7%. Some of the Stx2-O118-, Stx2e- and Stx2g-producing STEC were not detected with the Ridascreen-EIA probably because of low amount of toxin produced by these strains. Conclusions: The Ridascreen-EIA is able to detect all known types of Stx and is applicable for routine screening of bacterial isolates owing to its high specificity. It is less applicable for testing samples where low amounts of Stx are expected, such as mixed cultures and certain Stx2 variants. Significance and Impact of the Study: This study presents a first comprehensive evaluation of the Ridascreen-EIA, a rapid standardized STEC screening test for routine diagnostic laboratories. Data are presented on the type of the spectrum of Stx that are detected with this immunoassay and its advantages and limits for practical use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The efficacy of enterocoliticin, a phage tail-like bacteriocin, as antimicrobial compound against infections with pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O3 strains was assessed. In cell cultures, which were infected with the Y. enterocolitica strains 13 169 or 6471/76, bactericidal activity of enterocoliticin was found for bacteria adhering to the surface of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria, which had invaded the eukaryotic cells, were not accessible to the bacteriocin. The interaction of enterocoliticin with Y. enterocolitica was further examined in animals. Female BALB/c mice were experimentally infected with the two Y. enterocolitica strains and enterocoliticin was applied as antimicrobial compound by the oral route. Experimental variations concerning the infectious doses of the Y. enterocolitica strains and the time points of application of the bacteriocin were investigated. The increase of the Yersinia CFU titre in animals was retarded at time points shortly after the application of enterocoliticin indicating that the particles were effective on recently introduced Yersinia. The repeated application of enterocoliticin, however, did not prevent the colonization of the gastrointestinal tract by Yersinia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]