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The Supreme Court's 5-4 decision in the Passenger Cases (1849) overturned two Northern states' taxes on poor foreign immigrants. The Court's eight opinions disputed whether destitute transatlantic immigrants arriving in U.S. ports were legally and constitutionally 'persons' like fugitive slaves fleeing the South, free African Americans residing in the U.S.-Canadian borderlands, and black seamen working on ships entering Southern ports. The eight opinions issued in the case, as Charles Warren noted, raised fundamental constitutional questions concerning whether U.S. congressional or state authority was exclusive or concurrent over persons moving in interstate and international business, reflecting wider sectional struggles fostering the Civil War.1 More recently, Mary Bilder and others examined connections among indentured contract labor, race-based American slavery, and the Court's antebellum Commerce Clause decisions to establish that foreign immigrants were commercial objects subject to regulation through the Constitution's Commerce Clause.2 Southerners and Northern pro-slavery supporters argued, however, that fugitive slaves and free blacks crossing interstate and international borders were 'persons' who could be regulated or altogether excluded under state police powers.3 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]