Search

This article presents information on several papers and memorandums related to economic conditions in various countries. The Parliamentary documents for 1886 will contain a good deal of evidence of the increasing uneasiness as to the condition and prospects of the foreign trade of England. A Blue Book has been issued, giving the rates of duty levied on imports by the different European countries and the United States; and a second is to give the duties levied by the British colonies, these returns being on the plan of the similar documents published in 1882. The Commission on the Depression of Trade have also collected and published reports from the English consuls, showing the impediments to British trade in the different countries. Another snippet reports that the opening of fertile wheat lands in the United States, and the cheap transportation of grain to Europe have had an influence not only on England and Ireland, but on France, Germany, and Russia. French and German legislation has been invoked to protect the farmer. But now an interesting movement is in progress among the Russian peasants, by which the former serfs are becoming separated from the land. At the time of the emancipation of the serfs, Russia controlled the wheat markets of Western Europe; while the prices of agricultural products were high, and even rising.

The article focuses on the financial and economic problems of railways in Europe. The limitations of human activity are such that the men who come in contact with affairs have generally not the time and more often lack the technical knowledge to write down their experiences. This is as true in regard to the railway problem, whether it works out its solution in Europe or elsewhere. The French railways were making special rates for importations into France, which largely tended to nullify the protective tariff rates. The iron-masters, coal-miners, machine-builders, and textile producers of France, stirred up by the financial interests and by their own greed, in the press and upon the platform drew attention to this nullification of the French national protective policy; and, indeed, the only substantially important new condition that was imposed by the French government upon the railways under the new contract is, that all tariffs upon goods which tend to counteract the fiscal legislation of the country shall be subjected to the absolute control of the government, so as to quiet the agitation which threatened very considerably the permanency of the ministry, and to satisfy the public clamor for protective measures.

The article presents news related to the economic activities in Europe. In the opinion of economist M. René Stourm, the French finances illustrate the risk which a country runs from having too much money in the treasury. A true balance of income over expenditure it has been hard for France to maintain, even if extraordinary outlays were cut down; but, at the same time, the compulsory deposits in the treasury for account of local and judicial authorities, savings, annuity funds, and the like, have given a constantly increasing mass of balances, which runs from 1,000,000,000 to 1,700,000,000 francs. It has been announced that Macmillan & Co. will shortly publish a work by S. Dana Horton, entitled "The Silver Pound and England's Monetary Policy Since the Restoration." The Central Bureau of Statistics of Norway has added a third volume to a series on the merchant marine of all but Asiatic countries. By a royal proclamation published May 19, 1985, the English government has provided for the coinage of a silver four-shilling piece, to be called the double florin.

A conference paper about the Asian influence in Europe is presented. It talks about the Tartar influence in European Russia. The author discusses his travels through Russia and the crossing of the Caucasus Mountains into Europe. Subjects of the paper also include tribes of Jews in the mountains, the Armenian Plain, and Tartar mill-work.

Discusses the investigation of Isthmian Canal Commission to measure the tonnage of ocean shipping that would use the proposed interoceanic canal between the U.S. and Europe. Role of the U.S. Bureau of Statistics in the estimation of foreign trade; Difference in duplication in statistics of entrances and clearances in the United States and in Europe; Difficulty in estimation of factors affecting growth of commerce.

The article focuses on the paper "De quelques questions relatives dl'assurance des risques de guerre," by Emile Audouin. It was formerly the practice, he says, for the same policy to cover both ordinary perils of the sea and war risks, for a single premium. But gradually a change was made, until in 1900 the principal marine insurance companies operating in Europe adopted the principle of a special policy for each kind of risk. The change makes necessary an exactness in the legal definition of ordinary and war risks not required before. If the insured has to cover the two in different companies, it is important for him to see that there are no gaps to leave him without protection, as will happen if the war risk contract is held not to cover a loss, which the law governing the ordinary risk contract would not consider the result of an ordinary peril.

This article discusses the history of Ireland from the sociological standpoint. It is in the light of this simplification that the history of Ireland must be viewed; and so viewed, it will like all extreme cases, like all crucial instances, be found peculiarly rich in sociological material. It is, in its earlier history, a nation from its geographical position less affected by the movements of its neighbors or the general course of development than any other. It thus retained to an unusual extent the characteristics of the ancient Aryan civilization, once common to all Europe, and was peculiarly homogeneous in itself, and markedly separate from its neighbors. This distinction was maintained, in spite of one serious breach, the introduction of Christianity-till the first invasion from the island larger, richer, and closer to the centres of Western civilization, which lay between it and the continent of Europe. And if the earlier history of Ireland is of interest as the case of a Western people growing up in comparative isolation, the later history has an even stronger interest. It is that of a people peculiarly homogeneous and distinctive in their civilization exposed to a continuous pressure from a country possessing far greater resources and in some respects much further developed, an era of isolation followed by an era of domination, a civilization of peculiar strength subjected to an external pressure of peculiar intensity and continuance.

The article discusses key issues concerning the Garden City movement and civic reconstruction in Europe. The movement is an attempt to re-organize social conditions. Man represents the more individual and woman the more racial and unifying aspect in humanity. The woman, more obviously than the man, lives not for her alone but for others, and considers herself as part of a larger whole. The modern and womanly spirit of sympathy and oneness, influencing men as well as women, shows itself in part in sympathy with women and their claims, and in part drives us to grapple with the social problems of poverty and disorganization. It is admitted that Europe is moving from an age of individualism to an age of social or civic re-organization, and this tendency is connected with the woman movement. It is a recognition of the fact that man does not live by bread alone, and that fair wages and houseroom in a dull street are not all that he need ask of life. It is a demand for recognition of the common life in all its aspects, material and immaterial.

Examines specialization in the woolen and worsted industry in the U.S. and Europe. Different kinds of specialization; Description of woolen and worsted processes; Relative growth of the woolen and worsted branches; Degree of specialization; Comparison of industry organization between the U.S. and European countries; Tendency toward greater specialization in wool-combing.

The article presents abstracts of geographical research papers. In the research paper "A Geographical Study of Nova Scotia," researcher R.H. Whitebeek discusses the geographic conditions of Nova Scotia. Lying nearer Europe and possessing many excellent harbors and peopled by immigrants from the best European stocks, the province of Nova Scotia in Canada has now, after 300 years, fewer people than the city of Boston, Massachusetts. Its total manufacturing output is less than that of single companies in New England, and the province has shared but slightly in Canada's economic growth.

This article presents a study regarding the forests of the western portion of the Caucasus range. The very fertile stretch of land of Colchis lies on the eastern shores of the Black Sea. The parts of Asia and Europe which lie around the high ridge of the Caucasus are mostly dry grasslands and dry deserts. The southwestern part is thickly wooded all over and the water-laden southerly winds which beat against the high walls of the Caucasus bring great quantities of atmospheric moisture and rain to Colchis.

Local credit societies, in the case of practically every country whose practice is known to the writer, aim at fulfilling the functions both of thrift and of credit institutions. Their aim is to obtain as far as possible within their area of operations all the funds necessary for their business; and by offering security and an adequate return upon deposits they endeavour to gather in, for further productive employment in their district, all the idle capital of members and of all persons within their sphere of influence. The business of a local society when in working order is normally conducted upon the basis of its local receipts, whether from members or non-members, being sufficient to meet local credit demands. The co-operative organisation tends therefore to be threefold: local units, provincial groups, and national combination of the provincial groups. Practically every country in Europe has experienced the necessity of solving the problem of co-operative central organisation, and that while in every case the aid of the State has been invoked either for the provision of capital or of other facilities, in very many cases it has intervened directly and has established a special institution under its own management or supervision.

The article focuses on German and American opinion. In a mere measuring of sympathy with the various peoples of Europe, apart from any judgment upon specific issues in controversy between them, American academic sentiment for the past thirty years, and today as emphatically as ever, is overwhelmingly in favour of the Germans. The Germans think-or at least the Americans who know the Germans best think, and say very freely-that the Germans are particularly strong in traits which one conspicuously lack, and that Americans would be a nobler people than they are if we could reinforce American life with a liberal infusion of German superiorities. In the second place, it would be a great mistake for Germans to suppose that Americans are relatively misinformed about the great outstanding facts in the European situation. On the contrary, it has been evident from the second day of August that, as compared with the other nations of the world, the people of the United States are posted up to date.

The article provides an overview of the study "Versuch einer Uebersicht der siphonogamen Polsterpflanzen," by H. Hauri and C. Schröter published in the 1914 issue of "Engler's Botanische Jahrbuch." In this article, a list of the known phanerogamic cushion plants and their general characteristics are presented. An analysis of the plants' geographical distribution revealed that half of the species grow in South America and New Zealand. In Europe and Asia, these plants are confined to the mountains.

The article features the flax plant. The plant's strong and enduring fiber is used as lines and nets in the prehistoric years and was later utilized in clothing and household fabrics. Flaxseed is used both as medicine and as food. The oil from these seeds is used in the Renaissance period with the rise of oil painting art. The older countries in Europe still cultivate the plant for fiber while newer countries have developed flaxseed farming. Natural and social advantages of these two distinct culture of the plant are discussed.

The article presents information about bibliographies, periodicals giving news items and special reports in regard to the readjustment and reconstruction of the economic life of the countries of Europe. Some of the bibliographies are, "Reconstruction: A Preliminary Bibliography," compiled by Laura A. Thompson, "List of References on Reconstruction," prepared by Mrs. V. B. Turner, and is to be found in the December, 1918, issue of the journal "Monthly Labor Review." The Library of Congress published in November, 1918, "A List of British Parliamentary Publications on Reconstruction, With Some Other Publications." The Council of National Defense has prepared a "Bibliography on Reconstruction: British Parliamentary Papers and Selected Publications on Reconstruction." A very useful summary of news is contained in the "Daily Digest of Reconstruction News", published by the Director's Office of the Council of National Defense, Washington. It gives important facts about the work of the departments of the federal government in the field of reconstruction, actions of the state and municipal governments, and of foreign governments.

In view of the unsettled condition of European industry and finance, of the depreciated and fluctuating exchanges, and of the enormously heavy tax burdens, existing or prospective, pressure for prompt payment of either principal or interest at any early date would be most unwise. But eventual payment under a generously elastic funding arrangement is both possible and probable. The burden of settling for past wars will be less irksome than that of earlier days devoted to preparation for future wars, and the disturbance to the international money markets and exchange long since stabilized will be inconsiderable. Though advocating the cancellation of this foreign indebtedness, It should, however be a endeavor to make it at the same time an instrument of reform. It might fairly be required, in return for a gradual and progressive cancellation of these debts, that the debtor nations balance their budgets, that they stop the further emission of paper money and that they apply their resources to economic purposes rather than to armament.

There have taken place in the History of Europe a certain small number of great changes in thought which have produced corresponding external results in the structure of society. It is continually repeated that all great changes are effected by minorities. The thing is so necessarily true that it is a attitude--for obviously any new movement must begin in a minority, otherwise it would not be a new movement. It is essential to the understanding of any of the great historical changes to realize that the mass of men on hearing of a new conception, even if it be attractive to them and respond to some need of theirs or to some half-conscious conviction of theirs, do not fully adopt it. It is not at all the same thing to say that people are working enthusiastically for an end, and that they believe that end to be good or true. Men will work for an end because they think its results will be of material advantage to them. So far as one can know the great changes of history, such support from men who were not primarily convinced, who were not the whole hearted apostles of the new things, however useful, has never been decisive.

In a paper which the author had the honour of writing for the "Sociological review," the author attempted to describe the regional and vocational influences that produced the ancient architecture of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome and medieval Europe-the place, work and folk, and the resultant habitations. The river and the clay buildings of Mesopotamia, the river and the clay transmuted into granite for the buildings of Egypt, the mountain stone and marble buildings of Greece and Rome and the forest and timber buildings, afterwards translated into stone of Northern Europe. In all countries throughout the ages, the great building people have always been the agriculturalists, the peasants. Their settled place of abode-the regular routine of their seasonal duties gave a permanence to their works that the other vocations missed. If the sailor has not the high spiritual imagination of the shepherd, he has many other valuable qualities, and an imaginative range that even exceeds the shepherd's. His vocation brings him into contact with foreign countries and men of all nations; he is a trained observer and has ample time during his long voyages to meditate and digest what he has seen.

This article focuses on the major features in the European economic situation after the World War I, the land area in Europe is practically unchanged and the fertility of the soil has apparently not been greatly reduced. The devasted areas, quantitatively insignificant, have in large mea- sure already been restored. With labor, the problem is not quite so simple. In certain countries the population has been appreciably reduced, particularly that portion of the population which is at the most productive age. With plant and equipment (capital goods), the problem is, of course, much more difficult. Undoubtedly Europe is considerably short of the supply of capital goods that would have existed had the war not occurred. France has rebuilt a large portion of the destroyed areas, and, in the process, indirectly stimulated construction and related industries by continuing to run art annual government deficit of from twenty-five to thirty billions of francs. No one can deny that Great Britain's production and trade figures would have been much larger if the army of unemployed had been set to work at public expense building houses, factories, roads, etc.

This article suggests possible remedies to deal with European financial crisis. Taxes must be greatly increased and public expenditures greatly diminished so that current revenues will not only meet prevailing expenditures but also suffice to permit some amortization of public debt. In Great Britain a restoration of the old gold parity should be looked for. There must be a rational economic settlement of the German reparations question, based on a dispassionate economic analysis of Germany's ability to pay. Industry in Europe must revive. It can be made to revive, however, if the reforms above indicated are accomplished, and if outside help in the form of new capital is obtained. Measures designed to help the exchange problem may properly be made part, however, of the more comprehensive settlement above outlined. A comprehensive settlement might be worked out in the form of a compact between the governments of Great Britain and the United States, together with the bankers of Great Britain, the United States, and Japan as the party of the first part, and the former Continental belligerents as the party of the second part. Part of the proceeds of the new loans made by the United States might well take the form of gold to increase the reserves of the authorities in Europe issuing paper money (chiefly central banks), so as to facilitate their resumption of actual specie payments.

In this article, the author discusses on the role of the U.S. in the problem of stabilizing Europe. The author thinks that the very best and most fundamental method is for the U.S. is to join the League of Nations. This would go far toward solving the economic problems by removing or reducing a chief economic drain on European resources and would put the U.S. What is necessary is to induce France to accept the impartial settlement. She will apparently not accept any solution offered by another European power. She might accept an impartial investigation by the United States. If the matter were sanely handled, economically the rapid recovery of Europe would be possible; Europe itself is not bankrupt, but only her governments. If all inter-government debts could, by some magic wand, be canceled and all the other great government liabilities left by the World War I, such as pensions and military expenses, could likewise be abolished, Europe would recover with astonishing rapidity because her productive capacity is adequate.

In proposing an international convention, for the restoration of gold as the common standard of international trade, the Economic Section of the Genoa Conference of April, 1922, presided over by Sir Robert Home, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer, said: "The purpose of the convention would be to centralize and coordinate the demand for gold, and so to avoid those wide fluctuations in the purchasing power of gold which might otherwise result from tile simultaneous and competitive efforts of a number of countries to secure metallic reserves." And again, in Section 11 of these resolutions, the Committee accented this proposal when it declared: "Credit will be regulated not only with a view to maintaining the currencies at par with one another, but also with a view to preventing undue fluctuations in the purchasing power of gold." The Committee framing these resolutions comprised some of the ablest economists of Europe. As to the first resolution, several facts may be noted: 1) the metallic reserves of England, France, and several other of the chief commercial nations, are, like those of the United States, greater today by far than before the War; 2) The aggregate value in gold of the more stable of the depreciated currencies, like those of France, Belgium, Italy, Czecho-Slovakia, etc., tends to be roughly equivalent to the value which their pre-war currencies had in gold; 3) It follows that the stabilization of the principal currencies of Europe at or near their present gold parity would involve no great demand for metallic reserves, as for the most part these are now ample.

Discusses the proposal to regulate the coal industry of the U.S. Analysis of the chaotic condition of the American coal industry; Regular operation of mines in Europe; German coal parliament; Remedies to problems in the U.S. coal industry.

The story of man's occupation of the earth seems to be divided into two rather sharply marked periods the ancient and the modem world. It is not altogether a distinction of time; somewhat it is of space. For more than half of mankind is living in the ancient world today for all practical purposes. People of Europe and the Western Hemisphere and of certain islands of the Western seas are proud of our modernity. Perhaps the pride is based too heavily upon the modern machinery that people use so universally. The difference between the ancient world and the modern world, wherever those worlds may exist in time or space, is the difference of ideals upon which the two worlds are founded. The ancient world seems to have risen upon the theory that physical force is man's final arbiter, The modern world seems to be growing upon the faith that ideas rule that things of the spirit are unconquerable when they promote broader fellowships, more abundant living, more kindly pace in the works and ways of men.

More than any other American sociologist, Albion W. Small has mediated the results of European scholarship. The intellectual world is now one society. No nation would have had anything approaching its present scientific development without the collaboration of the scientists of different nations. Indeed, science as a national phenomenon is unthinkable. It is a part of the life of "the great society." In order to understand the development of the intellectual attitudes that have characterized the life work of Small and how he came to be so important a mediator between the scholarship of Europe and the U.S., it is necessary to sketch briefly some of the events of his career. Born May 11, 1854, at Buckfield, Maine, he graduated from Colby College in 1876. Already as a student he showed the fondness for telling phrases and the gift for constructing them which has always characterized his speech and writing. For the three years ending in 1879 he was a student at Newton Theological Seminary.

Focuses on commercial policy in Europe after World War I. Comparison between the policy of reciprocity and most-favored-nation treatment; Provisions of the Cobden treaty; Movement for a multilateral arrangement; International Economic Conference of 1927.

This article examines the manifestations or tendencies that make European society more thoroughly disorganized than it has been since the barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire. This paper analyzes if the phenomena of this kind of society simply anarchistic or may they be said to have rather definite movement and direction. The reasons for this tendency are numerous. Europe is beginning to see that the supremacy of the white man's civilization is threatened. Practically all political parties in Europe favor organized international cooperation. The industrial revolution was greatly accelerated by the scientific progress forced by the war. Europe is placing less emphasis on the materialistic and more on the intellectual and philosophical. It is beginning to see a decline in the game of exploitation of natural resources.

Modern Statecraft is, in its origin and fashioning, a European product. It is perhaps the most characteristic upshot of contemporary civilisation in Western lands. Yet a view of Modem Statecraft, seen in its essentials and discerned at once simply and comprehensively is hard to attain. Accept the idea, widely held by observant philosophers, that Switzerland is, and has for long been, the political laboratory of Europe, accept this idea and there opens a concrete mode of approach. The prevalent notion of Switzerland as "A Federation of Communes" answers the question what is Switzerland, and answers it incorrectly. Whatever Switzerland may be it is not merely a federation of Communes. Certainly it is a country of small political organisations called Communes. There are over three thousand of them, and they are, in a sense, self-governing with a considerable range of control over their own affairs. And there is truth in the saying that these three thousand odd Communes are the real political units of Switzerland.

There are two ways of approaching this question of revisions of European debt settlements. One is by an appeal to historical, legal, sentimental, and certain long-run economic considerations, the method that has been followed in the two papers preceding this. The other is to examine the drift of events which may conceivably have much to do with settling the argument. It is possible that the matter may be taken out of our hands, so to speak, and that new adjustments may occur while one is still debating. One will be remembered that in May 1921, claims against Germany were finally set at some 132 milliards of gold marks, including A, B and C bonds, and that attempts were made to collect 5 per cent interest plus 1 per cent sinking fund charges on the A and B bonds or a total of three milliards of marks per year. Against this effort disinterested economists everywhere protested. The Ruhr invasion and the collapse of Germany bear witness to the folly of demanding the impossible. Today the discussion rages around the possibility of collecting only 2.5 milliards per year which is a 6 per cent return on only 41,666,000,000 marks.

This paper discusses the existence of an open-field type of cultivation in Mediterranean lands and in the Atlantic Coastal lands of south west Europe. In certain islands of Brittany, France traces of an open-field type of cultivation still exist. Exposure to the westerly winds retards, and in many cases entirely prevents, the growth of trees, but in sheltered spots they may be found, as well as such sun-loving plants as mimosa, myrtle and vine. The islanders are occupied with fishing and farming. In the Balearic Islands also, the Minorcans are fishermen, while the Mallorcans have been enterprising navigators from earliest times. In all these islands the sillon is the basis of land tenure, and many sillons are cultivated in common. Communal methods of working were also characteristic of other occupations in the islands. The fertility of the soil is maintained by the application of manure in the form of seaweed, and there are very strict regulations concerning the cutting of this plant. In Ile d' Arz, France, with a two-field scheme, the ancient jachère morte has been replaced by the Jachère verte or green fallow. Barley and wheat, both varying in their species as much as the soil varied in its composition, were the cereals most usually grown. The mountains in Greece have limited the extent of the fertile land, and the dry climate has limited its green pastures.

To get a proper perspective of the development of accounting in any country one must understand the institutions, the characteristics of the people, and the peculiarities of their business practice. In France and Germany as in other European countries they have many hundreds of years behind them. Their institutions are the result of growth through many generations. Society in the United States is not as static and there is more freedom of movement between people in different walks of life. The French business man does not have the proper attitude towards the accountant. The accountant is a necessary evil. The accounting department is regarded as an expense rather than as a part of the organization that aids in the development of efficiency and as an important factor in the success of any large business. Without doubt French law has had some influence on the development of accounting in France. The French accountants have not organized themselves into strong professional societies. Instead of a few strong organizations they have many loosely joined.

Discusses insights that letters written by writer Fenimore Cooper from Paris and Rome give on events in Europe and European civilization. Absence of assembled letters or written papers of Cooper after his death; Revelation of journeys made by Cooper after 1826; Views of Cooper on European civilization found in his letter to friend Charles Wilkes; Letter from Cooper to poet Samuel Rogers dated January 19, 1931.

The article illustrate contrasts and similarities in the general development of European and American sociology in recent times. A conspicuous difference in this respect is that in American Sociology has grown as a child nursed by the Universities and Colleges; while in Europe its modern start, since August Comte, and development have in a considerable degree taken place outside of the Universities and Colleges. Indeed a number of the founders of the principal modern sociological systems in Europe never occupied the position of a teacher in University at all. This difference also continues to exist at the present moment: although the number of Universities and Colleges in Europe where sociology has been introduced as a regular course has considerably increased since the time of the War and Revolutions; nevertheless this number is still much below that of the United States. Another difference lies in the character of the European and American sociologists. The bulk of the sociological works in America are marked by their quantitative and empirical character while the bulk of the sociological literature of Europe is still marked by an analytical elaboration of concepts and definitions; by a philosophical and epistemological polishing of words.

This paper discusses the new economic and social tendencies of the European civilization. Individual freedom and political rights and national sovereignty and independence have been governing the ideals of the modern world. While they have been conquering public opinion and being given conscious political sanctions, a new set of social and economic conditions have been coming into existence. The age of nationalism has been marked by the growing internationalization of social and economic life. At the time of the French Revolution, each European people was distinct in its culture, its customs, its ways of thought, event its costumes. The victory of political liberalism and the acquisition of individual liberties appear to have been accompanied by an increasing loss of individual independence and initiative in the ordinary business of life. This also is the result of economic causes. It has come about that the center of social gravity has shifted from the political to the economic field. People still preserve the old political forms, but it is the economic issues that control their lives. The true feature of the new society, according to professional historian M. Lucien Romier, is not the class struggle but the growth of great economic interests which transcend the boundaries of nation and class.

The article offers some insights into the scope and methods of fishery research and its place in marine ecology. Oceanographical and fishery research was carried out in north-west Europe, in connection with the work of survey and exploration undertaken by the naval ships of Great Britain and the U.S. During the second half of the last century, fishery research developed in the Scandinavian countries in connection with practical problems, such as fish depletion. According to the author, fishery investigators should focus on various areas including from the edge of the ice in the north right south to the coast of Morocco, around Iceland, North Sea and the waters to the west of Greenland. The level of sea salinity, its temperature and its current are important factors in this research.

The article explores the evolution of property/ownership in after-war constitutions in Europe. A highly important problem that is actively discussed in modem times, especially after the world war, is undisputedly that of property. The origin and legitimacy of property have always been matters for controversy; but the socialist schools have put down this question for immediate action. The attacks directed by socialist schools against the principle of individual property, and the idea of the socialization of property are not new. The principle according to which the rights to private ownership are sacred and inviolable is today nothing more than a fiction. It is ridiculous still to speak of the liberty of property and contract, which in reality no longer exists. For some time attention has been directed to the fact that ownership is no longer unlimited, by citing public dispossession, the right of one's neighbor and, particularly in Germany, Section 308 of the penal code now in force, where ownership is limited by public law.

The article explores the scope of prevision in religion which has always been one of the chief conditions and causes of religious change. A detailed prevision of the future development of religion was the characteristic feature of the earlier nineteenth-century sociology. In so far as sociological prevision is possible with regard to the organic development of society in general, it will be possible to foresee the social form that religion will tend to acquire in any given culture. The complete secularization of Western culture may be followed by its gradual dissolution and by the reassertion of the traditional religion-cultures of Asia which have been temporarily overshadowed by the European world-hegemony.

This article presents the review of the literature on the foreign language methodology and methods of two leading European countries. Identifies the drill on grammar and syntax, and the acquisition of cultural background. Direction on the part of English teachers and publishers through a scientific investigation and vocabularies in beginning French courses. Method is implicit in the type of textbook employed. Demonstrates the advantages of the direct method over the grammar method. The conflict between teaching pronunciation by imitation of the teacher alone and the use of phonetics.

The objective of this article is to point out some lessons drawn from European experience with respect to railway finance and coordination. Immediately two difficulties appear here. First, the problem of selection of specific countries. The author tries to meet this problem by confining this article on railway finance proper to experience in Great Britain and France, where private ownerships typical. In the discussion of coordination, German experience is added, coordination being desirable under any system of ownership. These three countries provide a range from private ownership under a moderate degree of regulation, through private ownership under very complete regulation, to public ownership. The second problem is the difficulty and the danger of applying conclusions drawn from one set of conditions to another set. There are, however, enough common problems confronting European and American transportation to justify our consideration of foreign experience. Countries all over the world are greatly concerned with the plight of railway capital, with the effects of transport competition, and with the need for coordination; and various steps have been taken towards meeting these problems.

The article focuses on the sociological aspects of the frontiers. In the beginning the article gives a brief description of natural history of the frontiers. Western civilization can show some unexpected evidence of the way cultural frontiers, once set, tend to resist change. The great distinctions of religion are eloquent in this respect. Take the case of Islam and Christianity, between which the frontiers have only undergone modification in such parts of Europe as were socially and politically backward, viz, the East. Again, the relative immobility of the line of cleavage set at the end of the Wars of Religion. The most obvious mark of cultural frontiers is the change from one language to another, which tends with the average man to count for more than it really should. At bottom the whole of western Europe rests on, and has never got away from, the single culture pattern of Latin Christianity as it stood throughout the Middle Ages. Throughout the article an area in question is treated as if it were a "colony," the question whether the strings of its economic, cultural, and political existence being held outside the area does not preclude the possibility of normal processes of social and cultural development altogether.

The article examines the decline of birth rate and surplus of women in European countries. The first part of this investigation shows that a new method of calculation must be adopted in order to arrive at the true dimension of the surplus. When one separates the reproducing classes from the total population, the surplus of women turns out to be considerably higher than was hitherto supposed. Its origin can be traced back many decades and it can be shown that a surplus of women necessarily develops in a population which, over a period of time, has steadily increased its number of births. In the second part of this investigation the effects of such a surplus of women upon sociological conditions is considered. Their operation can be traced in many directions leading increasingly to a restriction of large families and ultimately even to a limitation of small families. The circumstances that determine the impulse to restriction in the size of the family have usually been regarded as largely economic in nature. They have been, on the one hand, attributed to the rising of the standard of living during recent decades with a resulting readjustment of the needs in regard to housing, education, luxury, etc.

The object of all business enterprises from earliest times has been the making of profit and the acquisition of more wealth. Budgeting occupies a prominent and permanent place in the field of business administration. Although budgeting, in the modern sense, was a postwar development in business management and had extensive application first in the United States, the beginnings of budgetary procedure of various other countries is also discussed in the article. Some of the European countries have recently been adopting budgetary procedures in their industries. Germany seems to be taking the lead. French business journals have contained reports of successful budgetary developments in the United States and some accounts of experiments carried on in French industries. In Russia the famous five year plan for economic production has centralized business budgeting in the machinery of the national Soviet government, while in Italy the national government also directs and controls to a large degree industrial operations. Belgium and Switzerland are also making some progress in the application of budgetary procedures.

This article focuses on the migration of British citizens between Great Britain and Europe, from 1924 to 1934. In each year of the span, more British nationals arrived in Great Britain from Europe than embarked for Europe. When British nationals arrive from Europe it is impossible to distinguish between those who were initially in Europe and those who merely traveled via Europe from, say, India, Australia, or New Zealand. Similarly the passengers from Great Britain to Europe include a number who do not finish their journey in Europe, but go forward to countries outside Europe. In order to determine the true migration of nationals between Europe and Great Britain, it is therefore first necessary to find out how many nationals passed through Europe each year when traveling between Great Britain and countries outside Europe. In 1921 the number of British passengers embarking from Great Britain direct to non-European countries was 268,300. Of these, 199,500 were classed as migrants and so changed their permanent residence. The other 68,800 nationals were therefore not changing their permanent residence, but had simply been visitors. Thus, of the 77,900 nationals visiting Great Britain from non-European countries in 1921, only 68,000 sailed direct to non European countries.

This article focuses on causes of crime of native born individuals of European immigrants. This higher crime rate of the native born of foreign stock has been generally attributed to the fact that the cultural guides of their parents' social heritage have been swept from them in their strange new turbulent environment and those of the new cultural milieu have not yet been instilled in them. The purpose of this paper is to analyze somewhat critically this general thesis. To do so, certain widely accepted remarks concerning urban and rural crime rates are presented as a basis for discussion. Many criminologists have observed the marked disparity in crime rates between urban and rural districts. The European immigrant, landing on American shores, was forced to find cheap lodgings as he was usually penniless. Anti-social behavior first becomes evident in the delinquencies of predatory boy gangs. Boys naturally tend to play with other boys. Behavior patterns organized in the former were carried over into and accentuated by the latter. Sons, both of native and foreign born stocks, made this promotion from juvenile delinquent to adult offender with equal facility.

This article examines three sociological aspects of regional consciousness. The concept of the region is familiar enough to the sociologist, and to the geographer it has become a basic part of his equipment. It gains in interest for both, however, when regarded as the expression of a tendency in European thought which has appeared in three forms in the last half-century or so. They have been the rise of the political and social movement known as "regionalism," the development of the regional concept as a technique in geography, and the emergence of the "regional novel" as a marked feature of prose fiction. The three activities have been contemporaneous and have enough characteristics in common to justify the assumption that they bear some relation to each other. It is a secondary matter that the actual regions of the novelist, the geographer, and the regionalist are rarely the same: the important fact is that they are all signs of a developing consciousness of the smaller units of the earth. Paradoxically enough, as intercourse became easier during the 19th century mean became more and more aware of the diversities within each state. On these three tendencies the most uneven in its development has been the political movement, known since the 1890s as "regionalism," the reaction against a centralizing and standardizing process.

The article focuses on the history of World War I. World War I, also known as the First World War and the Great War, was a global war which took place primarily in Europe from 1914 to 1918. The cause of the war was the 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria-Hungary and member of the Black Hand.

This article summarizes leading events, situations and research in the various fields of communications that particularly concern problems of public opinion formation and control. The period covered extends from July 1940 to September 1940. With the advent of war over Great Britain a new phase of international communication was introduced, which featured the newest and oldest methods of news transmission. London occupied the center of world news interest throughout the period in focus. Communications between the U.S. and Russia and Asia remained relatively free from technical disturbances but were vitally affected by increasing censorship. American broadcasting companies maintained their services from Europe during the quarter. There was a growing volume of criticism of press control in Great Britain. In many parts of the world, official censorship of communications passed over into more active measures of control. Short-wave broadcasting by foreign stations was affected by the war almost as much as other forms of news transmission.

During the 1940s, prime sources of information from Europe have narrowed to two, London and Berlin. While science has been hard at work telescoping time and space to make a smaller world than ever, policies and emotions of men in relation to international communication have put up bars and opened gulfs to separate minds of men by astronomical distances. Despite new developments, London and Berlin have succeeded in retaining their dominance over European news, as is only natural in the war between two great antagonists. Limitations imposed on gatherers of news in the East have been even more severe than European limitations. One of the most interesting results of the war on communications has been the revival of the artist as reporter. The transmission of information by mail between Europe and the U.S. has not changed much so far as the continent is in concern. Even despite the loss of mail and the censorship, however, many publications have discovered that private letters furnished more information of general conditions of life, than professional news reports.

The purpose of the study was to determine the proportion of German stock in the total population in Minnesota for the years, 1860 and 1870. German stock included German-born persons from Europe and American-born children of German parents. The sources of the data were the manuscript census lists of 1860 and 1870. The difficulties of such a handcount are discussed. A sample of the technique of listing and excerpting the data is given. The percentages of German stock are shown for the smallest workable units, i.e., the townships, in six different shades on two maps. The original maps were drawn on a larger scale than that of the reproductions. Carto-graphic techniques for population maps arc explained. The maps renal that German pioneers concentrated around the bend of the Minnesota River. German population centers were in Carver, Sibley, Nicollet, and Brown Counties. The same townships in Caner, Sibley, and Brown Counties showed heavy percentages in 1860 as well as in 1870, thus demonstrating that Germans preferred to settle among Germans rather than to move with the frontier. Religious influence was significant in Stearns County. The data from the study provide a basis for further research, such as dealing with factors conditioning settlement, routes used by emigrants, occupational distribution of this nationality, and others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]