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Secondary salinization has long been reported in the Roxo irrigation district (RID), southern Portugal, due to the use of saline-prone irrigation water and the existence of poorly structured soils. This study assessed the soil water and salt budgets in nine commercial orchards located in the RID using the multiple ion chemistry module available in the HYDRUS-1D model during the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. The studied crops were almond, olive, citrus (orange, mandarin, and clementine), and pomegranate. The model successfully simulated soil water contents measured in the different fields but there was a clear underestimation of the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation paste extract (EC e) in some locations, while simulations of the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were generally acceptable. Modeling errors were mostly associated with missing information on fertigation events rather than related to the effects of irrigation water quality. The water and salt balances were also computed for the 1979–2020 period. Considering the probability of non-exceedance of salt accumulation during this period, the risk of salinity build-up was high to very high for the very dry years in most fields, except in the citrus sites. The factors influencing the salt accumulation were the irrigation strategy, the seasonal irrigation and rainfall depths, the duration of the crop growth period, the rainfall distribution in the late and non-growing stages, the soil drainage conditions, and the irrigation water quality. For the current climate conditions and irrigation water quality, the risk of soil salinity levels affecting crop development and yields was found to be minor. This means that, despite salts tended to accumulate in the rootzone over a season, under current conditions the salinity stress did not reach harmful levels for plants. Only in two of the study sites, there was a need to promote salt leaching. Hence, this study shows that soil salinization risks in the study area are low but, for given locations during drier seasons, there is a need for tailored irrigation solutions aimed at the conservation of soil and water resources. • Soil salinization risks in nine commercial orchards were assessed with HYDRUS-1D. • The probability of non-exceedance of salt accumulation was computed for 1979–2020. • The risk of salinity build-up was high to very high for the very dry years in most fields. • For current conditions, the risk of soil salinity levels affecting crop development was minor. • Tailored irrigation solutions should be considered in some cases in dry and very-dry years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Orchards consist of complex agricultural systems, with a variety of characteristics (planting density, tree height, training system, canopy cover, irrigation method, interrow management) influencing crop evapotranspiration (ET c). Thus, irrigation water management requires finding crop coefficients (K c) that represent the characteristics of local orchards, evidencing the need for site specific data. The main objective of this study was to derive the K c of almond, olive, citrus, and pomegranate orchards in Alentejo, southern Portugal, wherein they became dominant over the last decade. Monitoring was carried out in nine orchards, which management decisions were performed by the farmers. The ET c was estimated from the soil water balance computed for each orchard using the FAO56 dual-K c approach with the SIMDualKc model. The model successfully simulated the soil water contents measured in the various fields along two growing seasons, with root mean square error values lower than 0.005 m3 m−3 and modeling efficiencies from 0.363 to 0.782. The estimated basal crop coefficients (K cb) for the initial, mid- and end-seasons were respectively 0.22, 0.58, and 0.50 for almond; 0.32–0.33, 0.35–0.36, and 0.33–0.34 for olive; 0.40, 0.40–41, and 0.40–0.41 for citrus; and 0.24, 0.60, and 0.52 for pomegranate. Small variations in olive and citrus K cb values were found to be related to differences in the fraction of the ground covered by trees' canopies and tree height. The single K c values, which included the component relative to soil evaporation, were also estimated. Furthermore, evaluation of the soil water balance in the nine case studies showed salinity effects in one almond orchard, mild irrigation water deficits in olive systems, and large non-consumptive water use in citrus and pomegranate orchards. These results evidence the need for better management of orchards irrigation water in the region, and the current study provides for reliable information on the K c of tree crops to support improving the management of local orchard systems and the preservation of soil and water resources. Aimed at these resources and the sustainability of their use, simulated alternative irrigation schedules were performed, which identified possible water savings of 20 mm in case of olives, up to 855 mm for citrus. • Irrigation management in nine commercial orchards was assessed with SIMDualKc. • Large non-consumptive water use was found in almond, citrus and pomegranate orchards. • Olive systems registered mild irrigation water deficits. • K c values are provided for improving irrigation water management in the Alentejo region. • Better training of orchardists is needed with support of computational tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]