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Within Indonesia, the structure of consumption and production differs significantly across provinces. This implies that carbon footprints and intensities between provinces are also diverse. This paper calculates historical consumption- and production-based carbon emissions at the provincial level using a multi-scale input-output (IO) database for 2010, in which an environmentally extended multi-regional IO (EE MRIO) table for 34 Indonesian provinces is integrated in the global EE MRIO EXIOBASE with data for 43 countries and 5 rest of the world regions. Emissions from consumption are detailed by product and their points of origin, while emissions from production are detailed by industry and their destinations. Our results show the heterogeneity of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions under both sides. The Java region is a net importer of carbon emission, while Sumatra and Kalimantan are net exporters. In the global context, the Asia Pacific region plays important role in national GHG emissions. Services product contributed 57.1% of national consumption-based GHG emissions, followed by manufacture (30.6%), and agriculture (12.3%). On the national level, 63.5% of national GHG emissions are related to household consumption. There is a high disparity across provinces in Indonesia in carbon footprints. Provincial average per capita carbon footprints vary from 2 t CO2e/capita in East Nusa Tenggara to 13.84 t CO2e/capita in East Kalimantan. Carbon intensity also varies from 0.83 kt CO2e/M Euro in Jakarta to 2.37 kt CO2e/M Euro in North Kalimantan. Agriculture and food products dominate household carbon footprints, while construction leads in government carbon footprints. Utilities and transportation services play important roles on national carbon intensities. We further correlated the Human Development Index (HDI) with per capita carbon footprints and expenditure, and find that provinces with similar GHG emissions and expenditure per capita income as Java, tend to have a lower HDI. Understanding development status and province-level characteristics is important for selecting policy strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the impact of family ownership and supervisory board characteristics on carbon emission disclosure. It uses balanced panel data and a matched-pair design of 124 non-financial firms listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange from 2017 to 2019. This study finds that family firms and larger boards improve, while female board members harm carbon emission performance. Further analyses reveal non-linear relationships between family ownership and carbon performance. When control rights are limited, family firms prioritize controlling managers and improving carbon quality. Conversely, they prioritize personal objectives over environmental concerns when there are high control rights, resulting in decreased carbon emission performance. Additionally, family board members generate more carbon information, indicating the family owners effectively utilize their position on the supervisory boards to influence the company's carbon emission performance. Finally, the study reports that more faculty member boards seem to hurt carbon emission reduction efforts. This result suggests that the diversity of their professional experiences does not affect the environmental effectiveness of supervisory boards. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding SEW principles and their connection to families in comprehending Indonesian corporate carbon emissions disclosures. The findings of this study enrich the worldwide literature by exploring the potential benefits of family business environmental performance. This study also adds to the literature on corporate governance, especially the role played by supervisory boards. Our findings align with the resource dependence theory, emphasizing the central function of supervisory boards as a monitoring tool. This study is constrained by its reliance on carbon emission data extracted from the annual reports of public firms, with a particular emphasis on pre-COVID-19 data. Future research should focus on sustainability reports and explore the time frame encompassing COVID-19 (2020–2022 datasets) to determine any differences in the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Responding to the Paris Agreement and climate change mitigation, Indonesia aims to reach net zero by 2060 or sooner. Due to Indonesia's dependence on coal and growing consumption, alternative sources of clean energy are imperative for meeting its rising energy needs and reducing energy-related greenhouse gas emissions to achieve the energy transition. This project aims to examine Indonesia's opportunities and potential to achieve low carbon ambition in the energy sector and identify alternative pathways for the energy transition in Indonesia. In this study, the open-source energy modelling system (OSeMOSYS), which is a long-term energy system modelling tool, is employed to compare electricity generation, investment, and carbon dioxide emissions between business-as-usual and five alternative scenarios. Six scenarios, including business as usual, least-cost, two coal-phrase out and two net zero aligned with national climate targets and optimal scenarios, were simulated across different target years. The results show that the net zero (NZ) scenario is more cost-effective and emits fewer greenhouse gases than the other scenarios in meeting Indonesia's future energy demand. However, achieving net zero by 2050 (NZ50) results in significantly lower CO2 emissions (10,134 MtCO2), which is less than half of the emissions in the net zero by 2060 (NZ60) scenario (16,849 MtCO2) at a similar cost (6229 and 6177 billion USD, respectively). This paper's insights emphasise that large-scale renewable energy deployment and coal retirement are critical pathways to reaching carbon neutrality and achieving the energy mix transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal is a commonly used fuel by coal power plants that produce coal fly ash and coal bottom ash (coal FABA) as byproducts. The latest regulation in Indonesia changes coal FABA classification to non-toxic waste, which opens up its utilization possibility. This paper analyses the coal FABA potential from Suralaya Coal Power Plant as concrete material and its environmental impact. To determine coal FABA potential, the methods used in this paper are slump test, compressive strength test, flexural strength test, and carbon footprint calculation. This paper shows that concrete mixture with coal FABA content has a lower slump value, lower compressive strength, and generally lower flexural strength. Furthermore, the carbon footprint calculation result shows that concrete mixture with coal FABA content has lower CO2 emissions than conventional concrete. Finally, the result shows that concrete with coal FABA could be used as non-structural concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on modelling outcomes for improvements to building energy performance in Indonesia. Long-term climate effects due to building energy demand and carbon emissions are also considered. The global change assessment model (GCAM) was used to generate the related end-user building energy data, including socioeconomics, for urban areas of Indonesia. As a comprehensive study, the total life cycle of carbon in the building sector and the concept of zero-carbon buildings, including energy efficiency, zero-emissions electricity and fuel-switching options, were considered. Building shell conductance (U-value) of the building envelope, floor area ratio (FAR), air conditioner (AC) efficiency, electrical appliance (APL) efficiency, rooftop photovoltaic (PV) performance and ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems were considered as parameters to mitigate carbon emissions under the operational energy category in the GCAM. Carbon mitigation associated with the cement production process was considered in the raw material category. Urban population and labour productivity in Indonesia were used as base inputs with projected growth rates to 2050 determined from the available literature. Low growth rate 'LowRate' and high growth rate 'HighRate' were considered as variable inputs for U-value, FAR, AC efficiency, APLs efficiency and PV capacity factor to model emissions mitigation. The energy consumption of the GSHP was compared to the conventional reverse cycle ACs to identify the potential of the GSHP as a fuel-switching option. In the GCAM, the benchmark (base case scenario) data set was generated based on input parameters (urban population and labour productivity rate) only for the residential building sector in Indonesia. Total potential carbon emissions mitigation was found to be 432 Mt CO2-e for the residential building sector in Indonesia over 2020–2050. It was found that an average of 24% carbon emissions mitigation could be achieved by 2020–2030 and 76% by 2031–2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon neutrality, being a 'new normative' around the world, is required home and abroad, and such requirement is based on real check of embodied carbon emissions in the international trade. In response, based on the environmental extended multi-regional input–output tables, carbon emission inventories from IEA, and decomposition analysis, this paper comprehensively analyzed the evolution of production- and consumption-based carbon emissions from 2000 to 2014 in Indonesia, explored their disparities in imports, exports, and household demand, and explored main drivers to changes in carbon emission flows. Moreover, historical development patterns over time were measured based on decoupling analysis. The results showed that Indonesia possessed net carbon emission inflows, where China contributed the largest. Increasing trends in carbon emission inflows were found in those embodied in industrial sectors. Dividing the final demand induced emissions, exports accounted for nearly one-third of Indonesia's final demand carbon emission, while domestic consumption took account of 50% of the total emission, of which local industrial products have increased from 2.6 to 1.5 Mt CO2 from 2000 to 2014, taking account of more than 40%. Export is inevitable if a country peruses a higher level of economic development's growth rate. The decomposition analysis showed that the economic development effect has increased carbon emission outflow, while the energy emission intensity effect has the opposite impact on carbon emission increase. Striving to achieve a decoupling and sustainable situation, those results pointed out consumers' responsibilities for future consumption and suggested the sustainable development pattern for emerging economy–Indonesia can be greatly facilitated by international trade control as well as carbon emission intensity mitigation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The FIT policy are widely adopted in the world to promote the utilization of renewable energy technology (RET). Tariff rates, tariff regression mechanisms, contract term, and quota constraints are all components of the FIT policy. This policy has also been adopted by Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN countries to optimize their renewable energy (RE) potential. This paper examines the utilization of RET in power generation under the FIT policy from the perspective of the growth of renewable energy, environment, and investment which applied in five major ASEAN countries in term of the biggest generation capacity, such as: Indonesia Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. This study shows that the FIT has been successful in accelerating renewable energy growth compared to pre-FIT, where annual RE capacity growth was 7.52% in Thailand (2007-2021), 16.38% in Vietnam (2011-2021), 4.56% in Indonesia (2012-2021) 2021), 9.11% in Malaysia (2012-2021), and 5.21% in the Philippines (2012-2021). FIT also managed to keep CO2/kWh emissions production stable in Vietnam, Malaysia, and Thailand while increasing RE production in their power systems. Otherwise, due to the low utilization of RET in Indonesia and the Philippines, CO2 emissions in them has increased significantly, 6.67% per year at Indonesia, and 15.25% per year at the Philippines after the introduction of the FIT. Generally, FIT has succeeded in increasing the value of international funding investments in RE sector in Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study investigates news sourcing practices in climate change reporting in Indonesia, a country that contributes significant carbon emissions and is among the world's most vulnerable nations in the face of climate crises. This paper examines two types of news sources: sources in the form of persons or actors whom journalists ask for information and sources in the form of international news flows from news wires and international media organizations. Through qualitative study using semi-structured interviews with 14 journalists and two editors-in-chief, I found three types of news sourcing practices that are currently adopted: news sourcing practices that use national actors as the main source; practices that use international news sources as cognitive inventory; and practices that rely on the international news flow. These practices are highly influenced by audience needs, the internet algorithm, and the news platforms for which the journalists work. The analysis also elucidates the transnational cooperation practices of several foreign public broadcasts in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper investigates national/regional power generation expansion planning for medium/long-term analysis in the presence of electricity demand uncertainty. A two-stage stochastic programming is designed to determine the optimal mix of energy supply sources with the aim to minimise the expected total cost of electricity generation considering the total carbon dioxide emissions produced by the power plants. Compared to models available in the extant literature, the proposed stochastic generation expansion model is constructed based on sets of feasible slots (schedules) of existing and potential power plants. To reduce the total emissions produced, two approaches are applied where the first one is performed by introducing emission costs to penalise the total emissions produced. The second approach transforms the stochastic model into a multi-objective problem using the ϵ -constraint method for producing the Pareto optimal solutions. As the proposed stochastic energy problem is challenging to solve, a technique that decomposes the problem into a set of smaller problems is designed to obtain good solutions within an acceptable computational time. The practical use of the proposed model has been assessed through application to the regional power system in Indonesia. The computational experiments show that the proposed methodology runs well and the results of the model may also be used to provide directions/guidance for Indonesian government on which power plants/technologies are most feasible to be built in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have made several attempts to adopt renewable energy targets given the economic, energy-related, environmental challenges faced by the governments, policy makers, and stakeholders. However, previous studies have focused limited attention on the role of renewable energy when testing the dynamic link between CO2 emissions, energy consumption and renewable energy consumption. As such, this study is conducted to test a common hypothesis regarding a long-run environmental Kuznets curve (EKC). The paper also investigates the causal link between carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, energy consumption, renewable energy, population growth, and economic growth for countries in the region. Using various time-series econometrics approaches, our analysis covers five ASEAN members (including Indonesia, Myanmar, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand) for the 1971-2014 period where required data are available. Our results reveal no long-run relationship among the variables of interest in the Philippines and Thailand, but a relationship does exist in Indonesia, Myanmar, and Malaysia. The EKC hypothesis is observed in Myanmar but not in Indonesia and Malaysia. Also, Granger causality among these important variables varies considerably across the selected countries. No Granger causality among carbon emissions, energy consumption, and renewable energy consumption is reported in Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Indonesia experiences a unidirectional causal effect from economic growth to renewable energy consumption in both short and long run and from economic growth to CO2 emissions and energy consumption. Interestingly, only Myanmar has a unidirectional effect from GDP growth, energy consumption, and population to the adoption of renewable energy. Policy implications have emerged based on the findings achieved from this study for each country in the ASEAN region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peatland conversion for agriculture is the leading cause of Indonesia's terrestrial carbon emissions that contribute substantially to global warming. Indonesia's peatlands contain 55–57 billion tonnes of carbon, the equivalent of almost 2 years of global carbon emissions at existing rates. This paper examines initiatives to retain soil‐based carbon in Indonesia's province of Riau, where over half the surface area is composed of agriculturally productive peatlands. We qualitatively evaluate three types of partnership programmes (bilateral, co‐governed and internationally funded local initiatives) in Riau aimed at the sustainable development of peatlands. The article finds that carbon loss is likely to persist in all case studies. Public, private and civil society actors in each partnership have exploited funding and political opportunities to advance agendas not directly related to the environment. The administrative category of the peatland hydrological unit as an ecologically meaningful scale of peatland governance is also under‐utilised by the partnerships studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Construction practitioners have adopted the green building (GB) concept to restore environmental damage caused by the built environment over the last decade. However, there is inconclusive debate regarding GB savings' potential to recover the cost of construction, maintenance, and renewals. This paper evaluates the feasibility of green-certified office buildings in Indonesia by comparing the life cycle cost and presents the cost–benefit ratio. Data were obtained from primary data and combined with reliable secondary sources for analysis. The result shows that GB requires an additional cost of 9.22% but offers energy and water savings over the building's life cycle accounted for 58.65%. Research has shown that GB adoption reduces the cost per square metre by 41.74% over the traditional one. The cost–benefit ratio of energy, water, and carbon emissions was 2.35 and thus, justified the increased costs of investment, maintenance, and renewals of GB. This research's findings can assist policymakers, practitioners, developers, and other interested parties in the construction sector in bringing forward regulatory changes, collaboration initiatives, capital investment, or other decision-making support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has issued a series of biodiesel-related policies to alleviate energy shortage anxiety and reduce carbon emissions. However, no other provinces or cities in China widely utilize biodiesel except Shanghai. This article firstly conducted a comprehensive estimation of the potential botanical biodiesel capacity in China. Then, we examined why biodiesel advancement in China was stagnated by comparing biodiesel-related policies in pioneer countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. We found the highest mix ratio will be ∼13 % if all potential botanical oils are added to petrochemical diesel and an addition of 3 % blending ratio can be achieved if waste cooking oils are effectively utilized. We concluded that despite the encouragement from policies, insufficient materials and lack of downstream consumptions may be the major reasons for the sluggish development of biodiesel in China. If microalgae biodiesel production technology is overcome in the future, China can compulsorily mix biodiesel on a large scale. This paper provided a comprehensive review of biodiesel-related policies in Malaysia, Indonesia and China, and figured out the key problems that hinder the promotion of biodiesel, helping to understand the dilemma and drive the potential development of biodiesel in China. • Potential biodiesel capacities were estimated among various provinces in China. • The highest biodiesel mix ratio will be ∼13 % if adding all potential botanical oils. • The southern China is more likely to prioritize blending biodiesel than the north. • Biodiesel-related policies in Malaysia, Indonesia and China were fully reviewed. • Inadequate materials and lacking downstream consumption hindered biodiesel growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of carbon performance, green strategy and financial performance on carbon emissions disclosure based on GRI 305: Emissions, of five polluting industrial sectors in Indonesia during period of 2017 to 2020. Factors affect carbon disclosure show conflicting results like positive, negative, and also no affect. All these findings in this paper may provide a new insight about what factor that affect pollutant industry disclose their carbon information. Pollutant industry are the main source of carbon pollution, therefore they have an important role about environment responsibility. Content analysis and OLS regression are used in the analysis, and find that green strategy and financial performance give impact on carbon emissions disclosure. However, carbon performance, does not impact on carbon emissions. It seems that companies in the polluting industrial sectors in Indonesia implement green strategy and still focuses on financial performance. Nevertheless, the carbon mitigation concern is low since there is no mandatory for Indonesian companies to measure dan report their carbon emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has set target to reduce its carbon emissions by 29% to 41% for 2030 (Perpres No. 98 Year 2021). Contrary to this target, carbon emissions in Indonesia have increased by 157% from 1990 to 2018. This paper aims to investigate the effect of media exposure, carbon performance, and firm characteristics on carbon emission disclosure, and with firm size and firm age as control variables. The analysis technique used is multiple linear regression with panel data to analyzed 334 non-financial companies that are listed in the Indonesia Stock Exchange (IDX) during the period of 2018-2021. Main findings of the study demonstrate that (i) media exposure has no significant effect on carbon emission disclosure, (ii) carbon performance has negative significant effect on carbon emission disclosure, (iii) profitability has no significant effect on carbon emission disclosure, and (iv) leverage has no significant effect on carbon emission disclosure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to identify the impact of the digital economy, the so-called Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sectors, on output growth, CO2 emission, and income distribution in Indonesia. These indicators are so-called green economy indicators. The method of analyzing the output and value-added multiplier of the ICT sectors and the impact of ICT sectors on CO2 emission and income distribution is based on input-output analysis. The multiplier, elasticity, and Miyazawa income distribution analysis will be used. The ICT sectors have high output and value-added multipliers. This condition suggests that any change in the final demand, such as investment in these sectors, will highly impact the output and value-added. Regarding CO2 emission, the ICT sectors contributed to less emission and are mostly regarded as insensitive to CO2 emission, except three of the ICT sectors have elasticity above the average. The impact of the ICT development sectors can worsen income distribution. Policy measures should consider the implication of ICT development as the critical sector with the potential impact of worsening income distribution. Therefore, the government is suggested to encourage ICT sectors with extra concern for social inclusivity to achieve a green economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has experienced rapid primary forest loss, second only to Brazil in modern history. We examined the fates of Indonesian deforested areas, immediately after clearing and over time, to quantify deforestation drivers in Indonesia. Using time-series satellite data, we tracked degradation and clearing events in intact and degraded natural forests from 1991 to 2020, as well as land use trajectories after forest loss. While an estimated 7.8 Mha (SE = 0.4) of forest cleared during this period had been planted with oil palms by 2020, another 8.8 Mha (SE = 0.4) remained unused. Of the 28.4 Mha (SE = 0.7) deforested, over half were either initially left idle or experienced crop failure before a land use could be detected, and 44% remained unused for 5 y or more. A majority (54%) of these areas were cleared mechanically (not by escaped fires), and in cases where idle lands were eventually converted to productive uses, oil palm plantations were by far the most common outcome. The apparent deliberate creation of idle deforested land in Indonesia and subsequent conversion of idle areas to oil palm plantations indicates that speculation and land banking for palm oil substantially contribute to forest loss, although failed plantations could also contribute to this dynamic. We also found that in Sumatra, few lowland forests remained, suggesting that a lack of remaining forest appropriate for palm oil production, together with an extensive area of banked deforested land, may partially explain slowing forest loss in Indonesia in recent years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing demand for private vehicles associated with the rise in the number of middle-income consumers in Indonesia has led to an enormous energy demand and high-level CO 2 emissions. In order to increase the sustainability in the transportation sector, the Indonesian government has given special attention to electric vehicles as key future solutions to achieve clean and green transport and to improve energy supply security. This paper aims to investigate public perception in relation to the adoption of electric motorcycles (EMs) in Indonesia. We conduct a survey involving 514 participants and find that only 36% of participants agree to adopt EMs as their next motorcycle, and 40% are still in doubt (i.e. neutral). To identify factors influencing EMs adoption, we expand the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model and analyse the data collected using Partial-Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). The findings show that an adequate perception of EMs, environmental benefits, economic benefits, and incentive policies positively affect the attitude toward the adoption of EMs, which reinforce the results of the previous studies. However, perceived cost and perceived risks appear to be insignificantly influential in our study. Furthermore, factors related to high-behavioural control and support from relatives and closest people are shown to significantly affect the adoption of EMs. This paper also presents the acceptable price range of EMs and the optimal price point (OPP) for segments differentiated by monthly income. All these findings provide valuable insights for the different stakeholders interested in enhancing the adoption of EMs in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the rapid development of the global digital industry and the need for sustainable development and climate change, this paper explores the global ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions changes and intensities from 2000 to 2014, and the driving factors behind ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions changes in 15 countries by using the multi-regional input–output (MRIO) method and structural decomposition analysis (SDA) method. We also use Monte Carlo simulations to forecast the ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions from 2020 to 2050. The results indicate that: (1) After 2009, global ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions first decline and then increase, and the sector that manufactures computer, electronic, and optical products account for 82.83% of the global ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions in 2014; (2) judging from the emission-reduction trends of various countries, CO 2 emissions intensity factors are the main drivers restricting the growth of embodied CO 2 emissions in the ICT sector, while final demand composition factors play a significant role in promoting the increase of ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions; (3) Australia, Germany, and Indonesia contribute to an increase in ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions due to sectoral heterogeneity, while Canada, China, Germany, and South Korea have contributed to an increase in ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions in terms of regional heterogeneity; (4) the drivers have also changed significantly with the impact of the financial crisis; and (5) with the current pattern of development, it is difficult to reach the peak of ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions in most countries before 2050. This paper also provides feasible implementation plans for carbon mitigation in the global ICT industry. • We analyze the global ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions changes and their driving factors. • The structural decomposition analysis (SDA) method is utilized. • Final demand composition factors play a key role in ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions. • ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions of Australia, Germany, and Indonesia increase due to sectoral heterogeneity. • It is difficult to reach the peak of ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions in most countries before 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta had a population of 10.2 million in 2015 that generated 6200 metric tonnes (Mt) day−1 of municipal waste in the 2017–2019 period. In the composition of the waste, as much as 9% is contributed by the commercial sector. This research focuses on five shopping areas in Jakarta (commercial areas (CAs)). The five CAs produce 110 Mt of waste per day and 79% of them are disposed of in landfills. 95% of the waste is a combustible fraction which can be used as an alternative fuel by the cement industry because the fraction has a low heating value of around 24 MJ kg−1. It is estimated that in one year, the CAs can produce about 34,500 Mt of alternative fuel with 820 TJ of energy. Approximately, the resulting energy savings are 2.6% which is equal to approximately 35,500 Mt of coal. In addition, the utilization of alternative fuel can reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 1.7% or 50,000 Mt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia contributes significantly to deforestation in Southeast Asia. However, much uncertainty remains over the relative contributions of various forest-exploiting sectors to forest losses in the country. Here, we compare the magnitudes of forest and carbon loss, and forest and carbon stocks remaining within oil palm plantation, logging, fiber plantation (pulp and paper), and coal mining concessions in Indonesia. Forest loss in all industrial concessions, including logging concessions, relate to the conversion of forest to nonforest land cover. We found that the four industries accounted for ∼44.7% (∼6.6 Mha) of forest loss in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Papua, Sulawesi, and Moluccas between 2000 and 2010. Fiber plantation and logging concessions accounted for the largest forest loss (∼1.9 Mha and ∼1.8 Mha, respectively). Although the oil palm industry is often highlighted as a major driver of deforestation, it was ranked third in terms of deforestation (∼1 Mha), and second in terms of carbon dioxide emissions (∼1,300-2,350 Mt CO2). Crucially, ∼34.6% (∼26.8 Mha) of Indonesia's remaining forests is located within industrial concessions, the majority of which is found within logging concessions (∼18.8 Mha). Hence, future development plans within Indonesia's industrial sectors weigh heavily on the fate of Southeast Asia's remaining forests and carbon stocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) of Indonesia in the Paris Agreement targeted emission reductions of 29% on its own and 41% with international cooperation in 2030, followed by Net Zero Emissions (NZE) in 2060. To achieve NZE, Indonesia enacted a carbon tax policy on April 1, 2022. The 2022–2024 carbon tax is limited to Steam Power Plants and will be imposed on other sectors by 2030. This research examines the ratio legis of carbon cost policies in Indonesia and compares the core of carbon tax policies in Indonesia with Sweden and Finland. Indonesia is starting to implement a Carbon Pricing policy under the 'Cap-and-Tax' scheme. The Cap scheme will be a means to force changes in the business culture in Indonesia, so the companies will pay attention to and reduce the carbon emission produced to avoid paying penalties for carbon exceeding the limits. Meanwhile, the Carbon Tax will provide economic resources to Indonesia to develop environmentally friendly technologies, fund research on renewable energy, and provide incentives for environmentally friendly businesses during the transition process to a carbon culture in Indonesia. Referring to the results of the comparison of carbon pricing policies in Finland and Sweden, Indonesia can gradually increase the cost of carbon taxes starting from Rp30,000/US$2 per ton CO2 equivalent to US$10 per ton CO2 equivalent. Meanwhile, for the imposition of high carbon tax rates, such as in Finland (US$73.02 per ton CO2 equivalent) and Sweden (US$137 per ton CO2 equivalent), Indonesia must carry out tax reforms, so the applied carbon tax is able to reduce carbon emissions without causing adverse impacts for the Indonesian economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia revised its mid-term emission mitigation target through the Enhanced Nationally Determined Contribution (Enhanced-NDC). If previously Indonesia targeted to achieve emission reductions of 29 % by 2030 compared to the BAU level, in the enhanced NDC, the country targets to increase its emission reduction commitment to 32 %. In most of the literature, limiting emissions can result in an economic slowdown compared to Business as Usual (BAU) conditions, especially if there are no innovations and policy reforms regarding emission mitigation activities. This study used the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model to simulate how far these policy changes impact the economy. This study also tried to simulate how much investment in emission reduction technologies can help Indonesia reduce the GDP loss caused by climate policy shocks. Based on the simulation results, GDP loss under the NDC (29 % reduction) and enhanced NDC (32 % reduction) schemes will be around 0.86 % and 1.04 % by 2030. The GDP loss may also be followed by the "employment loss", as a production reduction may lead to an employment cut-off. In terms of employment rate, if compared to the BAU, the more aggressive emission restriction may lower labour absorption by around 2 % by 2030. Investment in more advanced and efficient mitigation emissions can help reduce this GDP loss at varied levels, depending on the technology's introduction level. A 1 %-2 % additional investment may lower the GDP loss by around 0.05 %-0.11 % by 2030 compared to the BAU. With the same range of additional investment money, employment loss can also be reduced to 0.31 %-0.34 % by 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dynamic stochastic effects regressions on population, affluence, and technology model used in this study reveals the nonlinear effects of urbanization routes on CO2 emissions in China, India, Indonesia, the United States, and Brazil during 1970–2020, using dynamic seemingly unrelated regression, dynamic ordinary least square, and fully modified ordinary least square techniques. The empirical analysis shows that urbanization and the proportion of small cities contribute significantly to CO2 emissions, while the square of urbanization and the square of the proportion of small cities significantly reduce CO2 emissions, thus supporting the inverted U-shaped relationship for the selected countries. However, the effect of the proportion of large cities significantly reduces CO2 emissions, while the square of the proportion of large cities significantly promotes CO2 emissions, supporting a U-shaped relationship for specific countries. Gross domestic product, industrial development, and transport infrastructure contribute significantly to carbon emissions, while renewable energy generation significantly reduces carbon emissions. The country-level augmented mean group estimator in the analysis supports an inverted U-shaped relationship between urbanization and carbon emissions and a U-shaped relationship between the proportion of large cities and carbon emissions in all selected countries. There is also an inverted U-shaped relationship between the proportion of small cities and carbon emissions in China, India, Indonesia, and Brazil. The causality test results acknowledge bidirectional causality between urbanization and carbon dioxide emissions; between urbanization squared and carbon dioxide emissions; between the proportion of the largest cities and carbon dioxide emissions, and between renewable energy and carbon dioxide emissions. This study recommends renewable energy options, green urban infrastructure, and digital technologies to improve the environmental quality of urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contribution of tourism to economic development is an open secret but it is a double-edged sword. The opportunity cost for this significant share is environmental degradation without required measures to protect the environment. Using the Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squared approach from 1995 to 2014, this study aims to explore the nexus between tourism and environmental pollution for three lower middle-income Southeast Asian economies: Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. This paper uses carbon emissions as a proxy for environmental pollution against tourist arrivals with a few control variables for analysis. The Zivot-Andrews unit root test is applied to deal with structural breaks in data and the Gregory-Hansen test for robustness. The results confirm a negative impact of tourism on the environment for Indonesia and the Philippines; however, tourism improves the environmental quality of Vietnam. This implies that the relationship varies for different countries in the same region, depending on the country-specific characteristics and corresponding policies to protect the environment. The impact of governmental policies also differs for high and lower middle-income countries as one size cannot fit all. This study provides a comprehensive milieu of the impact of tourism on the environment. The identified dominant factors can guide Southeast Asian and other developing countries' governments at all levels in systematically formulating policies; by using these policies, carbon emissions from tourism can be reduced efficiently, resulting in sustainable development in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research article examines the role of transportation policies in reducing carbon emissions, focusing on various cities in Indonesia. The study aims to identify the most optimal transportation policies to address carbon emissions and promote environmentally friendly urban development. Bibliometric methods quantitatively analyzed scholarly literature on transportation policies and carbon emissions, while benchmarking methods compared transportation policies worldwide based on carbon emission data and air quality. A total of 100 articles were found in the Scopus database using the keywords 'transportation policy city carbon emission' from 2018 to 2023. The selection was refined to 50 articles with the highest citations and further narrowed down to 31 articles, then to 10 articles focusing on specific city research, and finally to the top 5 articles in Scopus Q1 journals (journals with the highest academic quality and impact) based on benchmarking results as the basis for policymaking. The research results indicate four optimal transportation policy recommendations to address carbon emissions: urban-scale fossil fuel consumption calculations, spatial planning prioritizing sustainable transportation, the use of micro-electric vehicles (micromobility), and increased energy efficiency in transportation. The study also identified under-researched variables related to carbon emission reduction efforts, such as urban airports, climate change mitigation, low-carbon mobility transition, and other future research formulation plans that can be further investigated. This research underscores the urgency of prioritizing the development of sustainable transportation policies to reduce carbon emissions and improve air quality in Indonesian cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drainage is a major means of the conversion of tropical peat forests into agriculture. Accordingly, drained peat becomes a large source of carbon. However, the amount of carbon (C) loss from drained peats is not simply measured. The current C loss estimate is usually based on a single proxy of the groundwater table, spatially and temporarily dynamic. The relation between groundwater table and C emission is commonly not linear because of the complex natures of heterotrophic carbon emission. Peatland drainage or lowering groundwater table provides plenty of oxygen into the upper layer of peat above the water table, where microbial activity becomes active. Consequently, lowering the water table escalates subsidence that causes physical changes of organic matter (OM) and carbon emission due to microbial oxidation. This paper reviews peat bulk density (BD), total organic carbon (TOC) content, and subsidence rate of tropical peat forest and drained peat. Data of BD, TOC, and subsidence were derived from published and unpublished sources. We found that BD is generally higher in the top surface layer in drained peat than in the undrained peat. TOC values in both drained and undrained are lower in the top and higher in the bottom layer. To estimate carbon emission from the top layer (0–50 cm) in drained peats, we use BD value 0.12 to 0.15 g cm−3, TOC value of 50%, and a 60% conservatively oxidative correction factor. The average peat subsidence is 3.9 cm yr−1. The range of subsidence rate per year is between 2 and 6 cm, which results in estimated emission between 30 and 90 t CO2e ha−1 yr−1. This estimate is comparable to those of other studies and Tier 1 emission factor of the 2013 IPCC GHG Inventory on Wetlands. We argue that subsidence is a practical approach to estimate carbon emission from drained tropical peat is more applicable than the use of groundwater table. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mutis-Timau Forest Complex, one of the remaining mountainous tropical forest areas in Timor Island, eastern Indonesia, has been exposed to significant deforestation and forest degradation. Numerous studies have highlighted the factors affecting deforestation. However, information about the factors influencing forest degradation at the local scope is still limited. To address this gap, we analyzed the factors contributing to forest degradation during the 1999–2017 period in the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex using a spatial statistical approach. We developed logistic regression using the forest degradation data obtained from forest canopy density time series maps as dependent variables and the spatial representation of the factors contributing to forest degradation, namely distance to the settlement, distance to the road, distance to agriculture, distance to the river, distance to the savanna, distance to the forest edge, slope, elevation, population density, and forest management unit, as independent variables. Our finding showed the increase in distance to the forest edge and elevation would decrease the likelihood of forest degradation, whereas the probability of forest degradation increases in forest located far from the river and the settlement. Such findings are important for the forest authority in prioritizing actions for combating forest degradation and designing appropriate forest-related policies and supporting data for reducing carbon emissions from forest degradation implementation or other incentive schemes in reducing forest degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Using 'higher-tier' emission factors in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories is essential to improve quality and accuracy when reporting carbon emissions and removals. Here we systematically reviewed 736 data across 249 sites (published 2003–2020) to derive emission factors associated with land-use change in Indonesian mangroves blue carbon ecosystems. Results: Four management regimes—aquaculture, degraded mangrove, regenerated mangrove and undisturbed mangrove—gave mean total ecosystem carbon stocks of 579, 717, 890, and 1061 Mg C ha−1 respectively. The largest biomass carbon stocks were found in undisturbed mangrove; followed by regenerated mangrove, degraded mangrove, and aquaculture. Top 100-cm soil carbon stocks were similar across regimes, ranging between 216 and 296 Mg C ha−1. Carbon stocks between 0 and 300 cm varied significantly; the highest values were found in undisturbed mangrove (916 Mg C ha−1), followed by regenerated mangrove (803 Mg C ha−1), degraded mangrove 666 Mg C ha−1), and aquaculture (562 Mg C ha−1). Conclusions: Using deep layer (e.g., 300 cm) soil carbon stocks would compensate for the underestimation of surface soil carbon removed from areas where aquaculture is widely practised. From a project perspective, deep layer data could secure permanence or buffer potential leakages. From a national GHG accounting perspective, it also provides a safeguard in the MRV system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry systems, particularly the coffee agroforestry system (CAS), represent a promising approach to achieving sustainable development and promoting a green economy in Indonesia. Our research aims to explore the potential of CAS to provide ecosystem services and socioeconomic benefits and address environmental risks in Indonesia. To critically analyze the current state of CAS in Indonesia, its potential for sustainable development, and the challenges that should be addressed to increase its uptake, we conducted a systematic review of published academic literature. Our findings suggest that CAS has the potential to turn a profit in the future thanks to rising global and domestic market demand as well as environmental benefits like reducing carbon emissions and improving resource efficiency. However, several challenges should be addressed to improve coffee quality and sustain green economy activities, including product certification, collaboration with NGOs and business entities, and coordination of government policies at the site level. Overall, this study highlights the importance of CAS as a green economy approach in Indonesia and suggests policy recommendations to support its promotion and adoption. By addressing the challenges and promoting the potential of CAS, sustainable development and green economic growth can be achieved in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere occurs as the result of various chemical, physical, and biological processes. The presence of CO2 around atmosphere greatly affects the agroforestry and agroindustry of coffee. This study aimed to describe the CO2 cycle in agroforestry and agroindustry of Gayo Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) and net CO2 ha-1 of coffee plantation. CO2 cycle was analyzed based on the movement of CO2 around the agroforestry and agroindustry of coffee. CO2 cycle model describes net CO2, CO2 emission, CO2 reduction, and CO2 sequestration. Net CO2 ha-1 of coffee plantation was 162.75 x 10-2 t CO2 e ha-1, with CO2 emission was 203.84 x 10-2 t CO2 e ha-1, CO2 reduction was 3.10 x 10-2 t CO2 e ha-1, and CO2 sequestration was 363.49 x 10-2 t CO2 e ha-1. This research formulates the calculation of equivalent carbon emissions in the arabica coffee production system in the field and primary processing, using various methods (remote sensing analysis and calculation of direct and indirect equivalent carbon emissions). The CO2 cycle positively impacts the sustainability of agroforestry and agroindustry of Gayo Arabica coffee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drainage in tropical peatlands increases CO 2 emissions, the rate of subsidence, and the risk of forest fires. To a certain extent, these effects can be mitigated by raising the water table depth (WTD) using canal or ditch blocks. The performance of canal blocks in raising WTD is, however, poorly understood because the WTD monitoring data are limited and spatially concentrated around canals and canal blocks. This raises the following question: how effective are canal blocks in raising the WTD over large areas? In this work, we composed a process-based hydrological model to assess the peatland restoration performance of 168 canal blocks in a 22 000 ha peatland area in Sumatra, Indonesia. We simulated daily WTD over 1 year using an existing canal block setup and compared it to the situation without blocks. The study was performed across two contrasting weather scenarios representing dry (1997) and wet (2013) years. Our simulations revealed that, while canal blocks had a net positive impact on WTD rise, they lowered WTD in some areas, and the extent of their effect over 1 year was limited to a distance of about 600 m around the canals. We also show that canal blocks are most effective in peatlands with high hydraulic conductivity. Averaging over all modeled scenarios, blocks raised the annual mean WTD by only 1.5 cm. This value was similar in the dry (1.44 cm) and wet (1.57 cm) years, and there was a 2.13 fold difference between the scenarios with large and small hydraulic conductivities (2.05 cm versus 0.96 cm). Using a linear relationship between WTD and CO 2 emissions, we estimated that, averaging over peat hydraulic properties, canal blocks prevented the emission of 1.07 Mgha-1 CO 2 in the dry year and 1.17 Mgha-1 CO 2 in the wet year. We believe that the modeling tools developed in this work could be adopted by local stakeholders aiming at a more effective and evidence-based approach to canal-block-based peatland restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The lakeside has an enormous sediment carbon storage potential; however, it is susceptible to various environmental changes and can easily become a source of carbon emissions. Understanding the amount of carbon storage in lakeside sediments and organic matter sources may provide information about the potential of lakeside zones in climate change mitigation, particularly for sustainable lake management. This study aims to estimate sediment organic carbon stock and the sources of organic matter in the Maninjau Lakeside-West Sumatera, Indonesia. METHODS: Sediment sampling was performed at five research sites, with a depth of 0-100 centimeters. Sediment samples were divided into 4 subsamples: 0-15; 15-30; 30-50; and 50-100 centimeters. Bulk density and total nitrogen content were analyzed, and the percentage of organic carbon was calculated from the loss of ignition. The sediment organic carbon stock was calculated based on the bulk density and organic carbon content. Carbon per nitrogen ratio was also calculated to determine temporal changes in the sources of organic matter in the lake. FINDINGS: This study demonstrated that Maninjau Lakeside has an enormous potential sedimentary organic carbon stock range between 284.23-442.59 megagrams per carbon per hectare. The highest total sediment carbon stock was found in Duo Koto (442.59 megagrams per carbon per hectare), with the lowest in Koto Kaciak (284.23 megagrams per carbon per hectare). In addition, the study's results also exhibited significant differences in sediment organic carbon stocks at each location with different land use and cover; in this case, the forest area has a higher carbon stock value than the agricultural and settlement areas. Therefore, it is essential to take initiatives for the restoration and conservation of lakeside areas because of their essential role in mitigating the climate change. The mean ratio of organic carbon and total nitrogen was between 9.96 to 16.91, indicating that phytoplankton, a mixture of floating macrophytes, and submerged vegetation were the sources of organic matter. CONCLUSION: In general, the value of sediment organic carbon stocks tends to be lower in locations with intensive agricultural settlements than in forest areas. This study emphasizes that restoring lakeside wetland is vital in increasing sediment organic carbon stocks and maintaining lake sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to investigate the impacts of economic growth, energy consumption, and the economic globalization process on ecological footprints in the top 10 countries that cause the highest carbon dioxide emissions in the world. The analyses were conducted on annual observations from 1970 to 2017 (a different range for each country) employing the Fourier bootstrap ARDL cointegration method developed by Yilanci et al. (2020) and the Fourier bootstrap Toda–Yamamoto causality method developed by Nazlioglu et al. (2016). In the cointegration approach, an additional F-test provides better insights to define degenerate cases and the bootstrap test performance is powerful than the asymptotic test. In this context, Fourier bootstrap ARDL test results revealed that there is a long-term relationship between ecological footprint and economic growth, energy consumption, and economic globalization in seven countries—namely, Canada, China, Germany, India, Indonesia, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. According to long-run coefficients, in general, economic growth and energy consumption have negative effects on ecological footprint, whereas economic globalization has a positive effect on the ecological footprint for these countries. To evaluate it more specifically, (i) real gross domestic product per capita has positive and statistically significant coefficients on the ecological footprint in China, India, Indonesia, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, except for Germany. (ii) Energy consumption per capita also has positive and statistically significant coefficients on the ecological footprint in China, Germany, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, except for Indonesia. (iii) Finally, the economic globalization process has negative and statistically significant coefficients on the ecological footprint in Canada, China, India, and Saudi Arabia, except for Indonesia. On the other hand, Fourier bootstrap Toda–Yamamoto causality test results show a mixed character. Governments should take action to reduce the negative effects of the climate crisis as immediate as possible, which has been widely expressed recently. Among these, increasing the use of renewable energy sources and new carbon-free technologies in the production process appears as important policy tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The performance of the PV-RO was analysed economically and environmentally. • The batteryless PV-RO system is the most economically feasible among other scenarios. • The diesel-assisted PV-RO system is the less preferable option. • The CO 2 emissions avoidance by the batteryless PV-RO system is 65,152.5 kg.CO 2 eq. • The optimized PV-RO system could avoid about 111,690 kg.CO 2 eq per year. Clean water demand has significantly increased due to the rise in the global population. However, most water on the Earth has high saline content that cannot be consumed directly; only about one over forty of the total water source is freshwater. Desalinated water is one of the potential solutions to meet the growing demand for freshwater, which is highly energy intensive. This paper analyses the energy, economic and environmental performance of a 5 m3/day PV (photovoltaic) powered reverse osmosis (RO) desalination system. Three scenarios of PV-RO with and without battery storage and diesel generator hybrid systems have been analyzed and investigated for the annual estimate load, net present value, and payback period of the water and electricity production costs. Also, the CO 2 avoidance over the lifetime operation of all scearios is evaluated. This study shows that the PV-RO system without battery with 6.3 kW PV panels installed and with a 2-days water storage tank system is the most profitable economically f. For this scenario, the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE), Levelized Cost of Water (LCOW), and Payback Period (PBP) are found to be $0.154/kWh, $0.627/m3, and five years, respectively. In addition, for this scenario, the CO 2 emissions avoidance was the maximum (111,690 kg.CO 2 eq per year) compared to other scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates ways to effectively reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Indonesia's manufacturing industry, by firm characteristics. It is important to determine the firm characters that have the greatest potential to decrease CO2 emissions. The Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method is used to decompose CO2 emissions into the key factors influencing changes in CO2 emissions, such as economic activity, industrial structure, energy intensity, energy structure, and emissions coefficient during the 2010–2018 period. The findings indicate that changes in CO2 emissions in industrial sub-sectors vary. High technology firms had the lowest average emissions compared to firms with other technology. Large-sized firms had the lowest emissions than small and medium firms. Foreign private firms had lower emissions than national private firms did. Firms in the Java–Bali location had, on average, highest emissions than those outside Java–Bali. Exporting firms had lower average emissions intensity compared to non-exporting firms. This study's novelty is an analysis of the effect of components that affect changes in CO2 emissions in firm groups based on their characteristics so that policymakers can focus on the potential reduction in CO2 emissions in certain groups of firms, namely firms that use the most energy intensively, is inefficient, and uses low-quality energy. Comparative analysis using firm characteristics reveals that energy-intensive firms' economic growth determines changes in CO2 emissions in Indonesia's manufacturing industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many benefits follow from the use of Electric Vehicles (EVs) to replace fossil fuel-based vehicles (FVs), i.e., improved transportation energy efficiency, reduced carbon and noise emissions, and the mitigation of tailpipe emissions. However, replacing conventional FVs with EVs requires the establishment of a suitable charging infrastructure representing a commonplace detail that blends into the landscape and is available in various locations. This research focuses on the infrastructure of Electric Motorcycles (EM), constituting a relatively dense network of charging stations (CS), which is an essential factor in accelerating the commercialization of EM in Indonesia. In this case study, we propose a Charging Infrastructure Optimization approach for placing charging stations to meet the demand posed by motorcycles. This study uses motorcycle user data as the initiation data for electric motorcycle users. The selection of charging station development points uses the calculation methods of the centrality index and scalogram, which describe the density of community activities. After the charging station's construction point is obtained, the point is validated with the optimization model that has been designed with respect to the Maximal Covering Location Problem. We also analyze the benefits and costs of constructing this charging station to determine its feasibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildfires are well known as annual disasters in Indonesia. More than 3 million ha was burned in the last 5 years. During an extreme event such as in 2019, carbon emissions can cause smog disasters in neighboring countries such as Malaysia and Singapore. Though difficult to predict, many hotspots that appear can be used to indicate the emergence of large-scale wildfires. The objective of this research is to provide suggestions in terms of used variables when analyzing fire event indication (hotspot), fire event scale (burned area), and fire event impact (carbon emissions). This research provides a spatio-temporal analysis and dependency between drought (precipitation and its derivative variables) and fire indicators (hotspot, burned area, and carbon emission). This research provides the different characteristics of each indicator when used to find joint patterns of burned areas, hotspots, and carbon emissions. Overall, using potential evapotranspiration and precipitation to calculate climate water balance gives great results in all analysis. Precipitation anomalies give the best joint spatial pattern to describe wildfire events in the area with monsoonal rainfall. Meanwhile, precipitation gives better results by capturing more wildfire events in a temporal pattern, even on robust analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is premised on Indonesia's climate goal amidst good economic performance. To test the environmental implication of this macroeconomic performance of Indonesia, we adopt Indonesian quarterly data of 1990Q1–2018Q4 for empirical analysis. Relevant instruments in the economic performance of Indonesia such as urbanization, foreign direct investment (FDI), and renewable energy source are all adopted for accurate estimations and analysis of this topic. Different approaches (structural break test, autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL)-bounds testing and Granger causality) are all adopted in this study. Our analysis and policy recommendations are based on the short-run and long-run ARDL dynamics and Granger causality. Findings from ARDL confirmed negative relationship between carbon emission and renewable energy source, FDI, and urbanization. Also, a U-shape instead of inverted U-shaped EKC is found confirming the impeding implication of Indonesian economic growth to its environmental performance if not checkmate. From Granger causality analysis, all the variables are seen transmitting to urbanization in a one-way causal relationship. Also, FDI and renewable energy prove to be essential determinants of the country's environment development; hence, FDI is seen transmitting to both energy sources (fossil fuels and renewables) in a one-way causal relationship. Renewable energy is as well seen having two ways causal relationship with both carbon emission and fossil fuels. This result has equally exposed the significant position of the three instruments (urbanization, FDI, and renewable energy source) in Indonesian environment development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical peatlands store vast volumes of carbon belowground. Human land uses have led to their degradation, reducing their carbon storage services. Clearing and drainage make peatlands susceptible to surface and belowground fires. Satellites do not readily detect smouldering peat fires, which release globally significant quantities of aerosols and climate-influencing gases. Despite national and international desire to improve management of these fires, few published results exist for in situ tropical peat fire behaviour and associated carbon emissions. We present new field methodology for calculating rates of fire spread within degraded peat (average spread rates, vertical 0.8 cm h−1, horizontal 2.7 cm h−1) and associated peat volume losses (102 m3 ha−1 in August, 754 m3 ha−1 in September) measured at six peat fire sites in Kalimantan, Indonesia, in 2015. Utilizing locally collected bulk density and emission factors, total August and September gas emissions of 27.2 t ha−1 (8.1 tC ha−1) and 200.7 t ha−1 (60.2 tC ha−1) were estimated. We provide much needed, but currently lacking, IPCC Tier 3-level data to improve GHG estimates from tropical peat fires. We demonstrate how calculations of total emission estimates can vary greatly in magnitude (+798% to −26%) depending on environmental conditions, season, peat burn depth methodology, bulk density and emission factors data sources, and assumed versus observed combustion factors. This illustrates the importance of in situ measurements and the need for more refined methods to improve accuracies of GHG estimates from tropical peat fires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We assess the economic viability of CCUS-EOR in Indonesia. • A cost evaluation model is developed for full-chain CCUS-EOR in East Java. • Stakeholders' shares are quantified under cost recovery and gross split contracts. • Appropriate contract scheme should be chosen to maximize potential profit. • High-purity CO 2 sources and EOR are viable for CCUS in Indonesia. Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is currently the primary technology to allow the use of fossil fuels with deep CO 2 reduction. One technology utilizes captured CO 2 for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). For developing countries which rely heavily on fossil fuels, CCUS with EOR can serve as a potential solution for national climate change abatement strategies while still sustaining energy security and economic well-being. This paper examines this premise by analysing the cost and benefit of deploying CCUS projects in Indonesia, specifically focusing on gas processing facilities and a nearby oil field in East Java. The key findings are as follows: (1) the cost of CCUS project is approximately $59/tCO 2 , for capturing, storing and transporting 5,546 tCO 2 /day, significantly more than offsetting CO 2 emissions from additionally produced oil to make it essentially a net CO 2 sink; (2) the CCUS – EOR integrated project can provide an additional oil recovery of 54 MMSTB oilfor 15 years of operational life. (3) The cost benefit analysis resulted in a positive NPV and levelized net profit of $3.13/tCO 2 for oil price $40/bbl. (4) the study highlights the total distribution of shares for oil & gas contractor and the Indonesian government under a PSC cost recovery scheme, approximating 141 million USD and 211 million USD, respectively. While under a gross split scheme, the Indonesian government share is 271 million USD and contractor share is 81 million USD. (5) Finally, our study reconfirms the economic viability for using high purity CO 2 sources combined with CO 2 EOR as an early opportunity for CCUS deployment in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to analyze the nexus between CO2 emissions, urbanization, and economic activity, as well as identify whether the pollution haven hypothesis is proven in Indonesia. It utilized time series data of Indonesia during the 1971–2019 period. Furthermore, the vector error correction model (VECM) was used to determine the long-run and short-run interplay using cointegration and Granger causality approaches. The empirical results showed the pollution haven hypothesis occurred in Indonesia. A long-term relationship with CO2 emissions was observed from the model. In addition, unidirectional causality occurred from urbanization, economic growth, exports, and foreign direct investment to CO2 emissions in the short term. It was concluded that the achievement of the Paris Agreement will be successful when the committed countries are courageous in transforming their economy. However, major adjustments are needed, where all parties need to have the same vision towards net zero carbon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work investigates the relationship of financial development with energy efficiency and economic growth. Due to the coexistence of economic expansion, trade openness, financial development, and urbanization in Indonesia and Turkey, these two countries are considered. Johansen cointegration, error correction, and Granger causality tests are applied to validate the predicted effects of economic activity on the environment. Results show a long-term relationship of Indonesia's CO2 emissions with five out of six macroeconomic factors, except for urbanization, which has a detrimental effect on carbon emissions. On the other hand, no cointegration across variables is found in the case of Turkey. However, unidirectional causality is observed from energy consumption and economic growth to economic growth. Furthermore, economic growth, energy consumption, and trade openness have a two-way causal effect on financial development. This work encourages Turkish and Indonesian policymakers and regulators to strengthen environmental laws. It also encourages other economies and governments to conduct similar analyses and determine the best course of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International initiatives for reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) could make critical, cost-effective contributions to tropical countries' nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Norway, a key donor of such initiatives, had a REDD+ partnership with Indonesia, offering results-based payments in exchange for emissions reductions calculated against a historical baseline. Central to this partnership was an area-based moratorium on new oil palm, timber, and logging concessions in primary and peatland forests. We evaluate the effectiveness of the moratorium between 2011 and 2018 by applying a matched triple difference strategy to a unique panel dataset. Treated dryland forest inside moratorium areas retained, at most, an average of 0.65% higher forest cover compared to untreated dryland forest outside the moratorium. By contrast, carbon-rich peatland forest was unaffected by the moratorium. Cumulative avoided dryland deforestation from 2011 until 2018 translates into 67.8 million to 86.9 million tons of emissions reductions, implying an effective carbon price below Norway's US$5 per ton price. Based on Norway's price, our estimated cumulative emissions reductions are equivalent to a payment of US$339 million to US$434.5 million. Annually, our estimates suggest a 3 to 4% contribution to Indonesia's NDC commitment of a 29% emissions reduction by 2030. Despite the Indonesia-Norway partnership ending in 2021, reducing emissions from deforestation remains critical for meeting this commitment. Future area-based REDD+ initiatives could build on the moratorium's outcomes by reforming its incentives and institutional arrangements, particularly in peatland forest areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most recent estimates of carbon emissions from Indonesia's peatland fires are based on extrapolation from a narrow base of empirical evidence, raising concerns about the reliability of fire emissions estimates. Measurements of peat fires during ENSO periods are not representative of fires in other years, yet they underlie many estimates of peat fire emissions in 'normal' years. Errors may enter into estimates of area burned, quantity of peat combusted and fire emission factors. Problems arise in extrapolating from a few empirical measurements without accounting for conditions that influence combustibility of peat and the heavy fuels through which surface fires transition to become peat fires. These conditions are influenced by drainage and fire history. Our analysis is based on a critical look at a sample of peat fire and emissions studies, including the two most widely cited ones, as well as at the uses made of those studies. Undue extrapolation from unrepresentative empirical studies contributes significantly to the uncertainty of emissions estimates in studies that rely on models rather than empirical observation. We do not offer our own estimates; rather, we argue that the base of evidence must be broadened. We point to examples of empirically based research that more reliably show the contribution of peat fires to overall peatland carbon emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study considers the effect of ownership characteristics on carbon emission disclosures using balanced panel data and a matched-pair design of 124 annual reports of non-financial firms listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (IDX) during 2017–2019. The main result from multivariate analysis reveals that firms with concentrated and family ownership tend to disclose more carbon emission information. This finding suggests that the stewardship qualities of concentrated and family-controlled entities align with carbon emission accountability and strategies to reduce emissions. Our additional analyses show that firms with family board members generate more carbon emission information. Finally, the analysis of nonlinear relationships confirms both monitoring and expropriation effects of family ownership on carbon emission performance. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that considerable work is needed for all non-financial listing firms to specify emission reduction targets and target years, quantify emission reductions and associated costs or savings, and factor costs of future emissions into capital expenditure planning. This study makes a valuable contribution to the family business and carbon emissions, a contribution of considerable interest to a broad interdisciplinary audience, including family business owners, managers, governments, and academics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the impact of Indonesia's electricity reform and meeting its 2030 carbon emissions and 2050 renewable energy targets on the country's economic growth, carbon emissions and poverty and income distribution. Simulation results from a dynamic computable general equilibrium model show that energy reform and carbon tax in Indonesia have a regressive impact while the gasoline tax has a progressive impact. Of the two demand side policies, gasoline tax was found to be more harmful than the carbon tax, resulting in GDP loss, declining investment, higher energy prices, and rising urban and rural poverty. A hybrid policy comprising a renewable energy mix target (supply side policy) and a carbon tax (demand side policy) is a viable option for minimising GDP loss, income disparity and carbon emissions. However, the transition towards renewable energy use is fraught with challenges for Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global competition encourages Indonesia to advance the economy, especially in manufacturing by implementing sustainable manufacturing. Companies must consider transportation costs and concern for the environment due to the large increase in greenhouse gas emissions and the increase in NOx, Particulate, and various other harmful pollutants. Emissions from transportation activities cause global climate change and damage air quality and human health in regional and urban areas. At the same time, the movement of empty containers can result in air pollution due to CO2 emissions which have a negative impact on sustainable development. This study aims to reduce carbon emissions in the logistics transportation chain in the Automotive Manufacturing Industry. The method used is the Eight Step Approach. The method used is systematic and structured from defining the problem to standardizing improvements. Analysis of the causes of the problem and proposed improvements are determined by Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with expert judgment. The source of the data obtained comes from field observations, FGD, company reports from 2019 to 2021. This research has proven that reducing carbon emissions has an impact on company profits. The largest decrease was contributed by improvements in transportation routes. The ratio of reducing carbon emissions by 2020 is 2.6% or an increase in efficiency compared to the previous year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although researchers have made significant efforts to explain the influence of institutions on environmental indicators such as CO2 emissions, the relationship between institutional quality and the ecological footprint has been neglected. The gap in the literature reveals an outstanding question: can institutions reduce their countryʼs ecological footprint? As a result, this study aims to investigate the effects of institutional quality and control variables on the ecological footprint for the period 1992–2015 in E‐7 countries through the AMG and CCEMG estimators. The findings show that institutional quality reduces the ecological footprint for the entire panel. Conversely, economic growth and energy consumption increase ecological pressure on E‐7 countries. In addition, the impact of institutional quality on the ecological footprint demonstrates heterogeneity at the country level. While institutions decrease the ecological footprint in China, India, Indonesia, and Russia, the study does not find such a relationship in other countries. Besides, energy consumption seems to be the most important factor in increasing ecological pressure in all countries. As drawn from the results, it can be said that improving institutional quality and increasing renewable resources in the energy portfolio are strategic actions in terms of improving environmental quality in E‐7 countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]