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This laboratory exercise affords students a hands-on experience learning about traditional dyes, fiber strength, and paper making. It is economical, simple to prepare, provides satisfactory results, and is student friendly. Dyes were extracted from plant leaves, stems, roots, and fruits. Hard-boiled eggs were place in the dyes for 15 minutes to determine what color each dye would produce. Colors of the eggs differed from the colors of the dye solutions. Fibers were procured from different materials (cotton, jute, hemp, etc.). Filaments were removed from the twine and a stress test was used to determine the strength:weight for each fiber type. Twine from each fiber type was used to make rope using the rope maker from the Boy Scout's Pioneering merit badge pamphlet (1993). Paper was made from recycled fibers suspended in water. A homemade deckle was used to collect and press the fibers to make a sheet of paper. Students found the exercise interesting and stimulating. (Contains 1 table.)

To eliminate the negative effect of soil contamination with heavy metals on plant growth and crop yield, different methods and techniques are the subject of discussion and study. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of secondary pulp and paper-mill sludge application to soil on the response of the main physiological processes such as the growth, photosynthesis, and respiration of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) plants to soil contamination with Pb. For the pot experiment, Pb was added to sandy loam soil at concentrations of 0, 50, and 250 mg Pb(NO3)2 per kg of the soil, and secondary sludge was added to a 0, 20, or 40% sludge solution during each plant watering. The Pb-mediated change in plant biomass allocation, decrease in the photosynthetic rate, increase in leaf respiration rate, and the degree of light inhibition of respiration were closely associated with increases in both root and shoot Pb content. For the Pb-free soil condition, secondary sludge application contributed to the allocation of plant biomass towards a greater accumulation in the shoots than in the roots. Although stomatal opening was not affected by either Pb or sludge, sludge application increased photosynthetic CO2 assimilation regardless of soil Pb content, which was associated with an increase in the electron-transport rate and carboxylase activity of Rubisco. Soil contamination with Pb significantly increased the ratio of respiration to photosynthesis, reflecting a shift in the carbon balance toward carbon losses in the leaves, but sludge application modified the coupling between the processes with a decrease in the proportion of respiratory carbon losses. The sludge-mediated recovery of the physiological processes of L. sativa reflected an increase in plant tolerance to soil contamination with heavy metals, the formation of which is associated with plant and soil adjustments initiated by secondary sludge application.

The paper mulberry is a commonly found tree species with a long history of cultivation. It also serves as a crucial case study for understanding how woody plants adapt to low temperatures. Under cold treatment, we observed a substantial number of alternative splicing (AS) genes, showcasing the intricate landscape of AS events. We have detected all seven types of AS events, with the alternative 3′ splice site (A3) having the most. We observed that many genes that underwent differential AS were significantly enriched in starch and sucrose metabolism and circadian rhythm pathways. Moreover, a considerable proportion of differentially spliced genes (DSGs) also showed differential expression, with 20.38% and 25.65% under 12 h and 24 h cold treatments, respectively. This suggests a coordinated regulation between gene AS and expression, playing a pivotal role in the paper mulberry’s adaptation to cold stress. We further investigated the regulatory mechanisms of AS, identifying 41 serine/arginine-rich (SR) splicing factors, among which 11 showed differential expression under cold treatment, while 29 underwent alternative splicing. Additionally, genes undergoing AS displayed significantly higher DNA methylation levels under cold stress, while normal splicing (non-AS) genes exhibited relatively lower methylation levels. These findings suggest that methylation may play an important role in governing gene AS. Finally, our research will provide useful information on the role of AS in the cold acclimation tolerance of the paper mulberry.

Abstract Background Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. has the characteristics of strong stress resistance, high crude protein content, and pruning tolerance. It is an ecological, economic, and medicinal plant. Polyploid plants usually perform better than their corresponding diploid plants in terms of nutrients, active substances, and stress resistance. Results In this study, the leaves, calli, and seeds of diploid B. papyrifera were used for tetraploid induction by colchicine. The induction effect of colchicine on B. papyrifera was summarized through the early morphology, chromosome count and flow cytometry. It was concluded that the best induction effect (18.6%) was obtained when the leaves of B. papyrifera were treated in liquid MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium containing 450 mg·L-1 colchicine for 3 d. The comparative analysis of the growth characteristics of diploid and tetraploid B. papyrifera showed that tetraploid B. papyrifera has larger ground diameter, larger stomata, thicker palisade tissue and thicker sponge tissue than diploid B. papyrifera. In addition, the measurement of photosynthetic features also showed that tetraploids had higher chlorophyll content and higher photosynthetic rates. Conclusion This study showed that tetraploid B. papyrifera could be obtained by treating leaves, callus and seeds with liquid and solid colchicine, but the induction efficiency was different. Moreover, there were differences in stomata, leaf cell structure and photosynthetic features between tetraploid B. papyrifera and its corresponding diploid. The induced tetraploid B. papyrifera can provide a technical basis and breeding material for the creation of B. papyrifera germplasm resources in the future.

The separately stored type herbarium of the Herbarium Greuter in Palermo is comprised of 339 sheets, corresponding to 336 specimens pertaining to 328 different names. Material from the Mediterranean area, especially Greece, predominates, followed by that from the Caribbean (Cuba) and Australia. The list includes transcribed label data and links to the digital specimen images and to the protologue texts. A new type of terminology is introduced, with the terms “first-step holotype” and “second-step holotype” designating type categories parallel to the similar terms already in use for lectotypes, and the phrase “detailed here” is used as an equivalent to “designated here” in second-step typification.

This study aims at highlighting the collaborative activity of two high school students (age 14) in the cases of modeling the complex biological process of plant growth with two different tools: the "paper & pencil" concept mapping technique and the computer-supported educational environment "ModelsCreator". Students' shared activity in both cases is carried out in the presence of a facilitator providing technical as well as cognitive support when necessary. The objective of the study is to highlight the ways in which the collaborating students are engaged in the plant growth modeling activity in the two cases and also identify the activity's similar and different aspects in each one. Our analysis is carried out on two complementary axes, the first of which concerns the "process" of collaboratively creating a plant growth model with each different tool, while the second has to do with the students' conceptualizations of the biological aspect of the modeling task in each case. A two-level analytic tool for the modeling process has been derived within the theoretical framework of "activity theory" on the basis of the "OCAF" scheme for "basic modeling operations" and the scheme of Stratford et al. [Stratford, S. J., Krajcik, J., & Soloway, E. (1998). Secondary students' dynamic modeling processes: analyzing, reasoning about, synthesizing, and testing models of stream ecosystems. "Journal of Science Education and Technology," 7(3), 215-234.] for "higher-order modeling actions." According to our results, four major "modeling actions (analysis, synthesis, testing-interpreting, technical and cognitive support)" performed through a plethora of "modeling operations" define the steps of the modeling process in both cases, while specific qualitative differences can be actually identified. Finally, the students' conceptualizations of the biological aspect of the modeling task in the two-case activity is analyzed in regard with their capability of shifting reasoning between macro- and micro-levels, while educational implications are also discussed.

Introduction: The knowledge of British and Irish bryophytes has been summarised at intervals since 1690 in national floras and checklists. The number of species and varieties recognised in these works can be used to track the discovery of British and Irish bryophytes. Methods: The main floras and checklists were identified, and the taxa recognised in twenty of them counted and their identity assessed in relation to the current (2021) checklist. Key results: The number of known bryophytes increased rapidly after the publication of Ray's Synopsis (1690). Dillenius's (1741) Historia muscorum brought together all previous reports. His polynomials were the main source for Linnaeus's binomial names in Species plantarum (1753). Linnaeus cut the number of British and Irish species from 179 to 119, omitting those that seemed to him obscure. It was clumsily done, and William Hudson (1762), in Flora Anglica, increased the number to 139, with 51 varieties, of which 37 are now treated as species. His contemporary Richard Pulteney made an early attempt to trace first records in a manuscript compiled ca. 1789. We agree with 134 of Pulteney's first records, but disagree with 88. All the historic lists contain redundancies – species that were then thought distinct but are now lumped together, the maximum being Smith's (1804) Flora Britannica, with 62. From 1855 to 1930 numerous varieties were recognised. These peaked at 309 moss varieties in Duncan's (1926) checklist and 117 liverworts in Wilson's (1930) checklist. In 2021 they have shrunk to 33 moss varieties and 9 liverworts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the importance of molecular plant sciences in sustaining food security in the face of global climate change. It emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary collaboration between plant science, physics, mathematics, and computer sciences to collect reliable information about plant biology and develop models that can predict interactions between genotype and environment. The article highlights the impact of abiotic and biotic stress on plants and the role of molecular biology in understanding stress resilience. It also discusses advancements in omics technologies, such as genomics and proteomics, for identifying genetic markers associated with stress tolerance. The article includes review papers on various topics, including plant responses to abiotic and biotic stress, methodology, and the detection and identification of specific plant species. Overall, the article provides valuable information for researchers in the field of molecular plant sciences and its applications in improving crop yields and food security. [Extracted from the article]

This paper provides evidence gathered from two suites of non-formal science activities that were intended to increase engagement in science by culturally diverse groups. Both studies involved the delivery of science activities that were designed, implemented and evaluated to show culturally contextualised science. The activities were run in two very different contexts (urban and very rural areas) and were designed to be of relevance to two distinctive cultural groups (those with links to South Asia, and those being educated through the medium of Gaelic, an indigenous minority language in Scotland), while also actively engaging with those beyond the target group. The link between language identity and culture was incorporated into the design of both sets of activities as well as the qualitative evaluation. The latter considers how the participants' assessment of the interventions, implemented by writing or drawing on a blank postcard, was designed to provide unstructured responses and explores what the resulting data revealed about the impact of the interventions. The findings suggest that the set of activities that most strongly engaged participants on the value of diversity in the creation of scientific knowledge, as well as increasing their focus on the consequences of scientific activity, were those that facilitated a more exploratory approach to the subject matter. By contrast, activities that had to be done according to a standard scientific protocol produced growth in subject-specific knowledge. The present paper explores the principles of the inclusive pedagogies that informed the design of the activities and discusses how these were operationalised in two very contrasting cultural contexts. The key finding was that presenting science as social practice, rather than as being socially neutral, is key to promoting engagement, along with the benefits of explicitly demonstrating the relevance of science to participants' daily lives.

To ensure comparability among leaf fresh mass measurements it is important to handle the leaves in a standardized manner. In the present work constraints of a commonly used method to achieve full turgor, storage between damp paper towels, were investigated. After overnight rehydration in a saturated atmosphere, the fresh mass of leaves of 14 species was measured, and the leaves were stored between paper towels (two treatments: moist and wet) at 4 degrees C. Their mass was measured after 24, 48, and 72 h. Leaf fresh mass increased during the first 24 h of storage between moist paper towels by an average of 1.8%, between wet towels by 3.3%. Among the species, the increase of leaf fresh mass between moist towels correlated with the species' desiccation propensity, indicating that it was rehydration from water loss during initial handling. On the other hand, between wet towels the fresh mass increase was associated with the species' leaf tissue structure, and it continued to increase beyond 24 h, indicating that the increase was a result of water penetration into the leaf air spaces. It is concluded that storage between moist paper towels results in reliable values of leaf fresh mass, and that desiccated leaves rehydrate well between moist towels. However, care has to be taken to avoid too wet conditions as they may lead to erroneously high fresh mass values, especially in species with large air spaces. Furthermore, exposure to unsaturated atmospheric conditions during handling has to be minimized.

Although formulating a broadly accepted definition of scientific literacy may be challenging, it is widely recognized that Nature of Science (NOS) is an essential component of it. There are different ways to define NOS. In some cases, NOS can be conceptualized through a number of general NOS aspects like for instance science's empirical basis or tentativeness. This approach in NOS teaching and learning is considered to be helpful for advancing students' understanding about NOS. Moreover, it has been suggested that history of science, and more specifically narratives informed by the history of science, can be very well used to explicitly and systematically highlight general NOS aspects. Thus, this paper reports on two "fiction talk stories" that we created considering the history of the super-organismic-plant-community concept and the critique against it. Our stories, "Inspiration cannot wait" and "Panta rhei," set focus on the creativity involved in scientists' work, the distinction between observation and inference, and the tentativeness of science. In this paper, we (a) discuss fiction talk stories as a type of narratives used in educational contexts, (b) highlight the historical background of "Inspiration cannot wait" and "Panta rhei" and present the narratives themselves, (c) discuss them in terms of their essential features and the strategies we considered, and (d) we make some final remarks.

The 16th Congress of the Mediterranean Phytopathological Union (MPU2022) took place in Limassol, Cyprus from 4–8 April, 2022. Plant pathologists from the region and beyond celebrated the 60th anniversary of the Union and the 62 years of publication of Phytopathologia Mediterranea as a top level plant pathology journal. MPU2022 entitled “Safeguarding Mediterranean Plant Health” promoted dissemination of the latest scientific advances, and facilitated dialogue and collaboration between researchers interested in all aspects of Phytopathology. This conference also addressed wider perspectives in scientific fields not previously explored at MPU Congresses, including abiotic stresses, biopesticides, forest pathology, smart agriculture and gender equality in research, funding, teaching and professional development. Papers presented at the Congress included 83 oral presentations, including 15 keynote presentations from leading scientists, and 63 poster presentations, covering all areas of plant pathology and plant stress research, from 130 participants. Five special sessions in cutting edge subjects were organised. A special session was organised jointly with the Arab Society of Plant Protection. All these scientific contributions are part of this issue.

Abstract It is common practice in scientific journals to print genus and species names in italics. This is not only historical as species names were traditionally derived from Greek or Latin. Importantly, it also facilitates the rapid recognition of genus and species names when skimming through manuscripts. However, names above the genus level are not always italicized, except in some journals which have adopted this practice for all scientific names. Since scientific names treated under the various Codes of nomenclature are without exception treated as Latin, there is no reason why names above genus level should be handled differently, particularly as higher taxon names are becoming increasingly relevant in systematic and evolutionary studies and their italicization would aid the unambiguous recognition of formal scientific names distinguishing them from colloquial names. Several leading mycological and botanical journals have already adopted italics for names of all taxa regardless of rank over recent decades, as is the practice in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, and we hereby recommend that this practice be taken up broadly in scientific journals and textbooks.

Plants is instituting the Best Paper Awards to recognize the outstanding papers published in the journal [...]

Bagging regulates the fruit microenvironment and improves the quality and market value of fruits. It is a safe and ecofriendly technique to protect fruits from insect/pest infestation and multiple biotic and abiotic stresses. In the current study, the influence of fruit bagging was evaluated on the development and quality of loquat fruits. Fruits from a healthy loquat orchard (Cv. Zaozhong No.6), located in Fujian, China, were enveloped in paper (T1), aluminum (T2), and aluminum–polyethylene bags (T3), while unbagged fruits were maintained as control (T0). In general, fruit bagging improved fruit quality in terms of fruit physiological and biochemical attributes and protected fruits from physical damage. In particular, aluminum–polyethylene bagging enhanced fruit weight, length, and width by 1.37-, 1.18-, and 1.13-fold, respectively. Loquat fruits bagged with paper bags exhibited the maximum soluble sugar and lowest titratable acid content. Fruits treated with paper and aluminum–ethylene bags showed twofold higher sugar–acid ratio as compared to control. Aluminum–polyethylene bagging caused 66.67%, 55.56%, and 33.33% reductions in skin burn, fruit rotting, and black spot of loquat. The fruits bagged in aluminum and aluminum–polyethylene did not show insect or bird damage, while unbagged fruits had 14.70% and 17.65% insect and bird damage, respectively. Overall, the results suggest that paper, aluminum, and aluminum–polyethylene bagging improved fruit health by 75%, 131%, and 144%, respectively, as compared to control. To delineate bagging type-dependent effects, principal component analysis was performed. Paper bagging was positively correlated with fruit firmness, rotting, soluble sugars, sugar–acid ratio, and proline content. Aluminum bagging was highly associated with improvements in titratable acids, cystine, and methionine. Aluminum–polyethylene bags were correlated with fruit weight, size, peel thickness, edible rate, and certain amino acids.

Drought is a key factor restricting plant survival, growth and development. The physiological parameters of plants are commonly used to determine the water status, in order to irrigate appropriately and save water. In this study, mulberry (Morus alba L.) and paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent.) seedlings were used as experimental materials, and four soil moisture treatments were set up for both plant species: 70–75% (CK: the control group, referred to as T0), 55–60% (T1: mild drought), 40–45% (T2: moderate drought), and 25–30% (T3: severe drought). The growth parameter of the plants was measured every two days from the onset of the treatment, the photosynthetic and electrophysiological parameters of the plants were measured every other week for a total of five times. The physiological responses and electrophysiological traits of leaves under different treatment levels were analyzed. The results showed that the photosynthetic and electrophysiological parameters could characterize the response of mulberry growth and development to soil water, and the growth and electrophysiological parameters could characterize the response of paper mulberry growth and development to soil water. Mild drought had no significant effects on the growth and development of mulberry and paper mulberry.

Plants is instituting the Best Paper Awards to recognize the outstanding papers published in the journal [...]

The article discusses a study by Adrienne Roeder and colleagues on the robustness of morphogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana sepals. The research found that robust development is not affected by changes in cell division but is dependent on uncorrelated or anticorrelated variability in cellular growth rates. The study highlights the use of stochasticity in plants to produce reproducible organ size and shape. The authors, Isabella Burda and Adrienne Roeder, provide insights into their research motivations and future directions in understanding the principles of robustness in plant development. [Extracted from the article]

The characterization of plant compounds with pharmacological activity is a field of great relevance in research and development. As such, identification techniques with the goal of developing new drugs or even validating the bioactive properties of extracts must be explored in order to further expand the knowledge of plant extract composition. Most works in this field employ HPLC, when exploring non-structural and cell wall carbohydrates from Rhynchelytrum repens. Phenolic compounds were studied by classical chromatography techniques and UV-vis spectrophotometry, with C-glycosylated flavonoids being detected but with no further details regarding the chemical structure of these compounds. In this work we employ paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (PS-MS) for the evaluation of the chemical profile of R. repens methanol extract. Positive ionization mode identified 15 compounds, belonging to flavonoids, fatty acids, and other classes of compounds; negative mode ionization was able to identify 20 compounds comprising the classes of quinic acids, stilbenes and flavonoids. PS-MS proved effective for the evaluation of R. repens extracts, making it possible to identify a total of thirty-five compounds. The bioactive properties attributed to R. repens were confirmed by the identification and characterization of compounds identified by PS-MS.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the existing Student Inquiry and Research program at Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy transitioned to a remote-only format. This paper describes the mentoring of 12 high school juniors and seniors in yearlong remote research projects involving plant biology and protein engineering. Working in groups of two or three, students read scientific articles and proposed experiments. An experienced researcher then carried out the experiments and gave the students the data. Students analyzed data, drew conclusions, and shared their results in an oral presentation and in a written paper. Despite the online-only format, all anonymously surveyed students agreed that the experience improved their confidence in both conducting and communicating scientific research, and 90% agreed that because of the experience, they are more likely to pursue a career in STEMM. These results are similar to those seen from in-person research experiences. Given the positive outcomes from this program, further development and use of remote research experiences may be beneficial, particularly for students who would not otherwise have access to any research opportunities. Remote learning technology thus enables existing resources of time and funding to be allocated differently to provide more students with authentic research experiences.

The JK Paper industry located at Rayagada discharges biologically untreated effluent more than the permissible limit prescribed by Pollution Control Board, Odisha in to the environment. The industry is seriously polluting the surrounding aquatic and terrestrial environment. No detailed intensive study was carried out by previous workers on this industry earlier. The present study aims at finding out the impact of effluent on the flora at the contaminated site. The chemically treated effluent (TE) contained significant amount of mercury and cadmium. The TE has high BOD, COD, dissolved solids and suspended solids when compared to normal river water at the site of discharge. The TE deteriorated the natural water bodies changing the physico-chemical properties of natural river water. After meeting the river water the TE was diluted after 1 km distance from the meeting point of the river. Crop plants collected from the contaminated site showed higher level of residual Hg and Cd and significant depletion in pigment was observed. Plants collected from both the sides of the treated effluent canal showed significant amount residue mercury and cadmium in the plant leaves. The plants exposed to the TE, showed variation in chlorophyll and Phaeophytin pigment content when compared to their respective control values in all terrestrial plants collected from the contaminated site. In some plant leaves little increment in the pigment level was noted but the values were not significant. The changes observed in the plant pigment might be due to heavy metal accumulation. The presence of residual Hg and Cd in crop plants and plant leaves grazed by grazing animals after absorption, accumulation and enrichment may lead to a possible biological magnification, warrants attention. Proper biological treatment, treatment of effluent by modern methods and removal of heavy metals from the effluent before discharge by the industry is suggested. • Biological treatment of the effluent was not carried out by the industry & chemicals present in the effluent were significantly high.. • The water quality of the river water deteriorated due to the discharge of effluent of the paper mill. • Plants collected from the contaminated site showed significant accumulation of cadmium and mercury in leaf tissues • Significant depletion in pigment content of exposed plant leaves was noticed. • Depletion in plant pigment was due to accumulation of cadmium and mercury in plant tissues absorbed from the effluent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The First Joint Meeting on Soil and Plant System Sciences (SPSS 2019), titled “Natural and Human-Induced Impacts on the Critical Zone and Food Production”, aimed at integrating different scientific backgrounds and topics flowing into the Critical Zone, where chemical, biological, physical, and geological processes work together to support life on the Earth’s surface. The SPSS 2019 meeting gathered the thoughts and findings of scientists, professionals and individuals from different countries working in different research fields. This Special Issue comprises a selection of original works on the plant-related topics presented during this international meeting.

The article provides ten tips for authors to expedite the peer-review process and increase the chances of swift publication in the journal Economic Botany. The tips include ensuring that the paper aligns with the journal's mission, following the guidelines for authors, justifying the novelty and innovation of the research, formulating clear research questions or hypotheses, providing thorough materials and methods, using sensitive language, going beyond plant lists, critically evaluating the use of ethnobotanical indices, practicing good scientific writing, and writing for a broad audience. The article emphasizes the importance of adhering to these recommendations to avoid delays in the publication process. [Extracted from the article]

This paper presents new Skepi Creole Dutch data from the late-18th century, found in the work of the German scholar Ernst Karl Rodschied. The creole data include pronominal and verbal paradigms, a short 60-word excerpt from a private letter, and around two dozen names for local flora. After briefly introducing Rodschied, we present the data and compare them to the existing Skepi corpus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of studies on phenolic compounds occurence and variation in the two Aconitum species were reported in our previous paper (Szweykowski, Krzakowa, 1977a and b). A modified extraction method allowed us to get additional data on anthocyanin variation in flowers of the same species. In addition one albino plant of A. variegatum was also investigated in this respect.

In this opinion paper we investigate the effects of forest management on animal and plant biodiversity by comparing protected areas with intensively and extensively managed forests in Germany and in Romania. We want to know the extent to which differences in diversity of Romanian compared to German forests are based on management. The number of tree species was not different in protected and managed forests ranging between 1.8 and 2.6 species per plot in Germany and 1.3 and 4.0 in Romania. Also herbaceous species were independent of management, ranging between 13 species per plot in protected forests of Romania and 38 species per plot in German coniferous forest. Coarse woody debris was generally low, also in protected forests (14 to 39 m3 ha−1). The main difference between Romania and Germany was the volume of standing dead trees (9 to 28 m3 ha−1 for Romania), which resulted in larger numbers of forest relict saproxylic beetles independent of management. Large predators (wolves, bears and lynxes) are only found in regions with low human intervention. Thus, we identified a "cut and leave" type of management in Romania, in which clear-felling of forest are followed by long periods of no human intervention. Forests managed in the "cut and leave" mode contained the highest diversity, due to a natural succession of plant species and due to habitat continuity for animals. In Germany intensive management eliminates poorly formed tree individual and species of low market value during stand development. Forest protection does not ensure the maintenance of more light demanding key species of earlier stages of succession unless competition by shade-tolerant competitors is reduced through disturbances. We compare the economics of intensive and extensive management. The "cut and leave" mode delivers less wood to the wood market, but saves expenses of tending, thinning and administration. Thus the net income could be quite similar to intensive management at a higher level of biodiversity. Our analysis suggests that forest protection per se does not yet ensure the maintenance of species. Clear-felling followed by natural succession may even be superior to the protection of old growth forests, regarding biodiversity. Further research is needed to substantiate this hypothesis.

The use of water-sensitive papers is an important tool for assessing the quality of pesticide application on crops, but manual analysis is laborious and time-consuming. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate and compare the results obtained from four software programs for spray droplet analysis in different scanned images of water-sensitive papers. After spraying, papers with four droplet deposition patterns (varying droplet spectra and densities) were analyzed manually and by means of the following computer programs: CIR, e-Sprinkle, DepositScan and Conta-Gotas. The diameter of the volume and number medians and the number of droplets per target area were studied. There is a strong correlation between the values measured using the different programs and the manual analysis, but there is a great difference between the numerical values measured for the same paper. Thus, it is not advisable to compare results obtained from different programs.