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Social dominance theory has generally posited that terror and intergroup violence can be explained in terms of social dominance struggles. Social dominance theorists have described terror mostly as a tool for maintaining intergroup hierarchies in society (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Although implications of the theory suggest that terror may also be used by lower status groups as a tool for the resistance of domination by higher status groups, this prediction heretofore has not been empirically demonstrated. Data from two samples, one in the United States and one in Lebanon, were collected regarding attitudes toward terrorism and intergroup violence. The results show that the American sample demonstrates the typical patterns of social dominance such that those who are higher in social dominance orientation tend to support greater violence toward the Middle East. However, the Lebanese sample shows the opposite pattern, such that those who are lower in social dominance orientation tend to support violence toward the West. These results suggest that (1) support for terrorism among Middle East citizens is a project of counterdominance, and, more broadly, that (2) the relationship between social dominance orientation and support for violence depends on the dynamics of the conflict and the status of the perpetrators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In social animals, reproductive success is often related to social dominance. In cooperatively breeding birds and mammals, reproductive rates are usually lower for social subordinates than for dominants, and it is common for reproduction in subordinates to be completely suppressed. Early research with captive animals showed that losing fights can increase glucocorticoid (GC) secretion, a general response to stress. Because GCs can suppress reproduction, it has been widely argued that chronic stress might underlie reproductive suppression of social subordinates in cooperative breeders. Contradicting this hypothesis, recent studies of cooperative breeders in the wild show that dominant individuals have elevated GCs more often than do subordinates. Here, I summarize relationships between rank, aggression, and GCs from field studies of 3 cooperatively breeding carnivores: the dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula), the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), and the gray wolf (Canis lupus). In all 3 species, GC levels are higher in dominants than in subordinates for 1 or both sexes. Higher GCs are associated with higher rates or severity of aggression in some cases, but not all. As studies have accumulated, the patterns observed in these carnivores are emerging as typical for cooperative breeders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dominance style concept has proven useful for understanding covariation patterns in relationship qualities, particularly among macaques. However, the dominance styles of many macaques, including Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana), have not been examined in detail. We describe patterns of bidirectionality of aggression, postconflict affiliation and kin bias in a group of wild, but provisioned Tibetan macaques over a 2-yr period in order make an initial assessment of their dominance style. Bidirectional aggression, including percentage of counteraggression (1.9%), and conciliatory tendencies (6.4%) were consistently low across partner combinations, seasons and locations (forest vs. provisioning area). In addition, females consistently displayed high levels of kin bias in affiliation and tolerance. Compared with macaque species with better known dominance styles, the Tibetan data generally fell within the range for despotic species and outside the range for relaxed species. Although other researchers have tentatively classified them as tolerant or relaxed, we conclude that Tibetan macaques display a despotic dominance style. This conclusion poses complications to explanations based both on phylogenetic inertia and socio-ecological models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immature domestic pigs are increasingly housed in large social groups (>50 pigs) without an understanding of how they adapt to these conditions. At a conventional group size (typically 10–30 animals), pigs exhibit dominance relationships which are frequently established using physical assessments of strength and fighting ability and may include the use of aggressive behaviour. The relationships also rely on individual identification of group members and the recall and reinforcement of previous fight outcomes. This paper reviews the implications of a large group size for the establishment and long-term maintenance of dominance relationships in immature pigs. Evidence suggests that, in large groups, less reliance is placed on aggression during the immediate post-mixing phase than would be expected if the same proportion of dominance relationships are established using aggression in both large and small groups. This occurred despite an ability to distinguish between pen mates and non-pen mates. The energetic costs to a pig of establishing dominance relationships with a given proportion of group members is likely to increase with group size. It is considered whether these elevated costs place a ceiling on the number of fights a pig can engage in or whether they are able to assess dominance ability using passive means and thereby reduce the proportion of group members with which they fight. It is probable that a combination of these two routes is responsible for the limitation of aggression observed. Sub-grouping behaviour, investigated in large poultry groups, appears not to be adopted by pigs in response to a large group size. There is a need for further fundamental research to investigate the way in which pigs adapt behaviourally to a large group size at the level of the individual pig and several potentially fruitful investigations are suggested. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

During winter at northern latitudes, large herbivores often exploit patches of concentrated, relatively high quality forage, which may lead to interference competition. The factors affecting success in contests and subsequent dominance rank, such as age and body weight, remain key issues in ungulate behavioural ecology. Maternal effects on offspring body weight are well known, but few studies have investigated if mother’s social rank influence offspring rank. Moreover, no study has related dominance rank in ungulates to weight loss during winter. Outcomes of social interactions (n=7,609), feeding time and spatial position in red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds and calves, and weight loss of calves, were registered from 1981 to 1996 at six winter-feeding sites within the county of Sør-Trøndelag in Norway. The level of aggressiveness was higher among calves than among adult hinds, and the factors determining the outcome of contests also differed. The initiator won the majority of interactions (more than 90% in both hinds and calves). Social rank was related to both age and body weight in adult hinds, and related to body weight and mother rank in calves. The relationship between feeding time and rank was non-linear. Feeding time was correlated with rank only among high ranked hinds, while there was no such relationship among low ranked hinds or calves. There was no correlation between winter weight loss and social rank in calves. Our study therefore underlines that, although frequent aggression is observed at artificial feeding sites of northern herbivores, this is not necessarily sufficient to give rise to interference competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results of experimental research are used to develop theoretical models of dominance hierarchy formation that incorporate effects of prior aggressive experience and body size. A combination of analytical models and computer simulations confirm previous theoretical treatments showing that intrinsic attributes such as body size fail to account for the degree of hierarchy linearity observed in nature for typical within-group variance of such attributes. Moreover, these models explain the mathematical dynamics of the operation of winner/loser effects during hierarchy formation. Additionally, I present an analysis of these models which shows that the degree to which relationships of component triads (all combinations of three individuals in a group) within a hierarchy develop sequentially can have a significant effect on linearity and is an emergent feature of prior experience effects that previously has not been examined. I explain how this feature can operate through physical and behavioral features of social groups that increase physical proximity of subgroups within a larger group, thus increasing the probability of sequential relationship development in component triads, which in turn provides the conditions for winner/loser effects to significantly increase the probability of component triad transitivity and hierarchy linearity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among primate species there is pronounced variation in the relationship between social status and measures of stress physiology. An informal meta-analysis was designed to investigate the basis of this diversity across different primate societies. Species were included only if a substantial amount of published information was available regarding both social behavior and rank-related differences in stress physiology. Four Old World and three New World species met these criteria, including societies varying from small-group, singular cooperative breeders (common marmoset and cotton top tamarin) to large-troop, multi-male, multi-female polygynous mating systems (rhesus, cynomolgus, talapoin, squirrel monkeys, and olive baboon). A questionnaire was formulated to obtain information necessary to characterize the stress milieu for individuals in particular primate societies. We standardized cortisol values within each species by calculating the ratio of basal cortisol concentrations of subordinates to those of dominants in stable dominance hierarchies and expressing the ratio as a percentage (relative cortisol levels). The meta-analysis identified two variables that significantly predicted relative cortisol levels: subordinates exhibited higher relative cortisol levels when they (1) were subjected to higher rates of stressors, and (2) experienced decreased opportunities for social (including close kin) support. These findings have important implications for understanding the different physiological consequences of dominant and subordinate social status across primate societies and how social rank may differ in its behavioral and physiological manifestations among primate societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A social sign stimulus that is sympathetically induced affects aggressive approaches and influences serotonergic, dopaminergic and noradrenergic activity in the brainstem nuclei of Anolis carolinensis. Darkening of postorbital skin via sympathetic activation of adrenal catecholamines and β[sub 2] -adrenergic receptors provides a visual signal that forms more rapidly in dominant than subordinate males during social interactions. This signal limits aggressive interactions. Males were painted postorbitally with green or black paint and then exposed to a mirror. Aggressive approaches to the mirror were inhibited in males viewing a reflection with darkened eyespots, and increased in males viewing a reflection without eyespots (hidden). Noradrenergic turnover in the raphe and locus ceruleus were greatest in test subjects that viewed a reflection with eyespots hidden by green paint. Perception of darkened eyespots stimulated greater serotonergic turnover in raphe, locus ceruleus and substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area (SN/VTA). Dopaminergic turnover was higher in the raphe and SN/VTA of Anolis that viewed a reflection with darkened eyespots. However, these animals had lower dopamine turnover in the locus ceruleus than isolated and hidden eyespot groups. Of the possible roles of perikarya on central function and behavior, our results suggest feedback, cross-nuclear regulation, and some independence of function between nuclei and the forebrain terminal fields. Decreased serotonergic activity corresponds with increased aggression only in the raphe, suggesting that the raphe nuclei might be important for this behavioral trait. Increased serotonergic, noradrenergic and dopaminergic activities in SN/VTA in Anolis that view a reflected opponent with dark eyespots suggests that the SN/VTA might be directly involved in recognition of this social sign stimulus and the resulting inhibition of aggression.Copyright © 2001 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Principles of conspecific defense have been analyzed for rodents, in which specific target sites for biting by attackers on defenders serve as an important determinant of the actions involved in both attacker and defender behavior. In an effort to determine the generality of these principles, attack and defensive behaviors and target sites for biting attack were evaluated in a nonrodent species, the tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri ). Brief daily and repeated conspecific dyadic encounters between adult, socially experienced males (dominants, attackers), and adult, socially naive males (subordinates, defenders) that had been transferred into the territory of the dominants, produced a polarization of attack and defense. The dominant males showed chase, chase attack, jump attack, and biting behaviors, while the subordinates displayed flight and freezing. The vast majority of bites, as well as wounds and bruises, were on the subordinates’ backs. These patterns are very similar to those previously found in rats and mice and suggest that the organization of fighting, with targets of biting (or other painful) attack serving as an important determinant of both attacker (dominant) and defender (subordinate) behavior, may show considerable generality across nonrodent as well as rodent species. Although relatively few wounds were found after 28 days of repeated and daily encounters, the subordinate tree shrews show a variety of behavioral, neuroendocrine, and central nervous changes, indicating that they are stressed by these encounters per se. Aggr. Behav. 27:139–148, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group living confers many benefits while simultaneously exposing group members to intense competition. An individual's rise to prominence within a group may conflict with the overall functioning of the group. There is therefore a complex and dynamic relationship between the behavioral displays that directly benefit an individual, the consequences of these actions for the community, and how they feed back on individual-level fitness. We used a network analysis approach to study the link between behavior, social stability, and steroid hormone levels in replicate communities of the cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni, which live in social groups with a dominance hierarchy. We demonstrate that individual behavior can have direct and indirect effects on the behavior of others while also affecting group characteristics. Our results show that A. burtoni males form stable social networks, where dominant individuals act as hubs for social interactions. However, there was variation in the temporal stability in these networks, and this variation in stability impacted hormone levels. Dominant males had higher testosterone levels, however, the differences in testosterone levels between dominant and subordinate males were greatest in stable communities. In sum, our analyses provide novel insights into the processes by which individual and community properties interact. • Group living confers benefits while exposing group members to competition. • Social network analysis is used to study naturalistic communities of a cichlid fish. • Community membership is predictive of both testosterone and cortisol levels. • Variance in testosterone levels depends on group stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Social stress behavior is similar in mirror, dyad, and altered sign stimulus trials. • Mirror, dyad, and altered sign stimulus trials change the stress type experienced. • Altered stress types change the social experience and neuroendocrine responses. • Altered stress types increase or decrease plasma norepinephrine concentrations. • Altered stress types increase or decrease hippocampal serotonergic activity. Neural and endocrine responses provide quantitative measures that can be used for discriminating behavioral output analyses. Experimental design differences often make it difficult to compare results with respect to the mechanisms producing behavioral actions. We hypothesize that comparisons of distinctive behavioral paradigms or modification of social signals can aid in teasing apart the subtle differences in animal responses to social stress. Eyespots are a unique sympathetically activated sign stimulus of the lizard Anolis carolinensis that influence aggression and social dominance. Eyespot formation along with measurements of central and plasma monoamines enable comparison of paired male aggressive interactions with those provoked by a mirror image. The results suggest that experiments employing artificial application of sign stimuli in dyadic interactions amplify behavioral, neural and endocrine responses, and foreshorten behavioral interactions compared to those that develop among pairs naturally. While the use of mirrors to induce aggressive behavior produces simulated interactions that appear normal, some behavioral, neural, and endocrine responses are amplified in these experiments as well. In contrast, mirror image interactions also limit the level of certain behavioral and neuroendocrine responses. As true social communication does not occur during interaction with mirror images, rank relationships can never be established. Multiple experimental approaches, such as combining naturalistic social interactions with virtual exchanges and/or manipulation of sign stimuli, can often provide added depth to understanding the motivation, context, and mechanisms that produce specific behaviors. The addition of endocrine and neural measurements helps identify the contributions of specific behavioral elements to the social processes proceeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Captive studies can make a unique contribution to primate socioecology by documenting species-typical social dispositions under controlled conditions. Recent theories seek to connect the dominance relationships, group cohesiveness, and feeding ecology of primates. The present study explores the first to aspects by comparing the social organization of rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and stumptail monkeys (M. arctoides). Data were collected over a period of eight years, with five different methods, on three well-established captive groups in identical environments. The groups were found to share one characteristic: a clear-cut, linear formal dominance hierarchy as expressed in teeth-bearing displays. The two main study groups (one of each species) differed significantly, however, with respect to nine of eleven behavioral measures. In addition to a previously reported higher frequency of reconciliation in the stumptail group, this group showed 1) more frequent but less severe aggressive behavior, 2) greater symmetry of contests, 3) greater social tolerance, 4) more nonagonistic approaches, and 5) more allogrooming. The differences can be summarized as a contrast in dominance "style," with the stumptails having a more relaxed style and placing greater emphasis on social cohesion than the rhesus monkeys. An egalitarian attitude was also reflected in approach behavior: contacts in the rhesus group were initiated dominants, whereas contacts in the stumptail group were initiated independent of rank. Comparisons with a second rhesus group, and with published reports, suggest that while some of the observed differences are probably representative of the two species, considerably intraspecific variation does exist, and a more comprehensive program of comparative studies is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous evidence indicates that the correlates of dominance vary over studies. We hypothesized that one source of this variability is that dominance shifts with age from being associated with aggression to being more associated with prosocial behavior and sociometric status. To test this, we examined 10 vs. 13 year-old boys' perceptions of dominance, using a measure that assessed the perceived outcomes of dyadic agonism. In a sample consisting predominantly of lower- and middle-SES boys from public schools attending a racially integrated summer program for youths with behavior problems, we examined the relation between perceived dominance, sociometric status, and measures of social behavior, including physical and verbal aggression. Perceived dominance was associated with hitting and bullying among 10 year-olds, whereas among 13 year-olds it was more closely associated with sociometric status. The measure of perceived dominance we present produced rigidity scores comparable to those found using behavioral measures of dominance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Factors influencing the tendency to be aggressive were investigated in male house mice using a series of paired encounters. Body size, body length, body temperature, age, and anogenital distance were measure on all males. Paired encounters were conducted using a standard mouse cage as an arena. Across 64 males involved in 224 encounters, the tendency to be dominant and win encounters was significantly correlated only with anogenital distance (r=0.383). These findings suggest that there are significant behavioral effects that have been elucidated in female house mice and other rodents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 3 day long cohabitation in pairs of previously isolated adult male Betta splendens was studied. The first two mornings started with intense fighting, the frequency of which decreased during the day. The bursts of aggression noticed in the mornings were associated with a significant carbohydrate metabolism activation, while daytime activity resulted in a reduction of muscle proteins in the evenings. These changes were more pronounced in submissives than in dominants. The third day marked a shift in the behavior of the pairs: burst of attack activity were not noticed, while the threatening display frequency increased. During this day a similar reduction in lipids was observed in dominants and submissives. While during the first 2 days the dominant position offered some metabolic advantage, this advantage disappeared during the third day when both members of the dyad seemed to do equally less well than their isolated counterparts. Combined with previous findings obtained in this series of experiments, the present results support the assumption that in this species the presence of one opponent is less well tolerated than the presence of four conspecifics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The resident-intruder paradigm was used to examine the effects of social dominance and individual recognition on odor preferences and urine-marking in male rats. Resident males were significantly more aggressive than intruders and spent more time investigating the odors of familiar intruders. Resident males urine-marked most over the odors of females and familiar intruders while intruders marked least over the odor of the familiar resident. Intruders did not avoid investigating nor marking over the odors of familiar resident males or other conspecifics. These results suggest thin Individual odors of male rats may be more salient than a general odor of dominance, and that the dominant males increase their investigation and marking over the odors of familiar sub-ordinates but not unfamiliar subordinates. The importance of olfactory learning during aggressive interactions is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social dominance rank in red grouse has a large inherited component. The relative contributions of mothers and fathers to the dominance ranks of their sons and daughters were studied by breeding a dominant and a subordinate strain and crossing them. Both parents contributed equally to the dominance ranks of both sons and daughters. Cocks from the dominant strain were more aggressive and had bigger combs than cocks from the subordinate strain. Dominant cocks and hens, however, did not weigh more than subordinates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diallel cross genetic design was employed to determine the pattern of inheritance of male--male agonistic behavior in laboratory mice. The results indicated strong strain differences in agonistic behaviors and strain ranks that replicated previous findings. The genetic analysis showed the presence of additive and nondirectional dominance effects on the behaviors measured. This pattern has been characterized as indicating the action of stabilizing selection and indicates that the trait has not been under directional selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sibling red grouse resembled each other and their parents in social dominance rank and in an aggressiveness score. This was shown by comparisons of variance within and among clutches, correlations between parents and offspring, and experiments involving selection. Both dominance and aggressiveness scores were inherited. There was weak evidence that a laying hen's nutrition and crowding might also influence the dominance of her offspring. These results indicate mechanisms that may underlie fluctuations in the numbers of wild red grouse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social relations of three adult males in a captive chimpanzee group were evaluated for 12 months. The observations encompassed a period of transition in the dominance hierarchy providing an opportunity to assess behavioral patterns involved in the initiation of status changes. This study shows that dominance in the chimpanzee is expressed primarily through ritualized and non-contact behavior rather than by overt aggression. In particular, display behavior is important for indicating dominance rank, in communicating aggressive intent, and as a prelude to status struggles. The functional relationships between status, displays and other socio-sexual behavior patterns are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following an initial intruder aggression test, 10 pairs of adult male rats matched on aggressiveness were formed. The first 20 mm of paired cohabitation were used to determine dominance and subordinance between pair members. Residents judged to be dominant from this observation session gained significantly more weight during cohabitation and exhibited significantly more aggression on the second aggression test than their subordinate counterparts. Significant correlations among various measures of aggression were found, but open field performance did not correlate with the measures of aggression nor did changes in open field scores reflect changes in aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the breeding season different social classes of field-active lizards, Sceloporus jarrovi, exhibit regionally specific changes in central monoaminergic activation. Changes in serotonergic content and turnover between lizards from different social classes are seen in forebrain structures (telencephalon and diencephalon) and reflect events associated with reproductive behaviors, stress and aggression. Males without territories (satellite males) exhibit higher forebrain serotonin (5-HT) system activation compared to territorial males and adult females. This serotonergic activation includes increased 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio, suggesting increased release and catabolism. Satellite males also exhibit higher 5-HIAA/5-HT ratios (serotonergic turnover) compared to territorial males following agonistic interactions. Territorial males, immediately following aggressive defense of territories against intruder males, exhibit increased 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) levels, higher 5-HIAA levels and 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio, higher epinephrine levels, greater MHPG/NE, more DOPAC and larger DOPAC/DA ratio compared to territorial males that did not have an aggressive encounter. These differences suggest activation of 5-HT, norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA) systems by the synthesis and release of more 5-HT and the release of more NE and DA during aggressive defense of territory. The highest activity of serotonergic systems is exhibited by satellite males compared to territorial males, perhaps reflecting stress in subordinate animals from social and ecological sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel 'field' study recently published in Aggressive Behavior found that individual differences in baseline testosterone concentrations were positively correlated with endorsement of political aggression and that baseline cortisol concentrations were negatively correlated with self-reported aggression among Palestinian boys living in Gaza. Here, we discuss recent evidence indicating that testosterone and cortisol interact to predict competitive, aggressive, and dominant behaviors and urge researchers collecting both hormones to perform and report analyses that formally test for such interaction effects. Aggr. Behav. 37:489-491, 2011. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facial width to height ratio (fWHR) has been related to aggression in men in Western samples. This study examined whether fWHR predicted intimate partner violence and dominance in committed relationships in a Chinese sample (n = 144). fWHR was measured in two ways: (1) bizygomatic width divided by the distance between the upper lip and mid-brow and (2) bizygomatic width divided by the distance between the upper lip and highest point of the eyelids. The Conflict Tactics Scale 2 was used to measure intimate partner violence. The 39 items assessed individuals' aggression in five dimensions: (1) negotiation, (2) psychological aggression, (3) physical assault, (4) sexual coercion, and (5) injury. Dominance was measured using the 32-item Dominance Scale where higher scores indicated more dominance. The results found no significant sex differences regarding fWHR. The men that reported a physical assault had larger fWHRs than the men who had no physical assaults. Both fWHRs were positively associated with the men's, but not the women's, physical assault score. Both fWHRs were significantly associated with the disparagement dimension of dominance among the women, but not among the men. The findings indicated the cross-racial consistency of the association between fWHR and aggressive behaviors in multiple situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social behavior is critical for relationship formation and is influenced by myriad environmental and individual factors. Basic and preclinical research typically relies on rodent models to identify the mechanisms that underlie behavior; however, it is important to use non-rodent models as well. A major objective of the present study was to test the hypothesis that biological sex and social experience modulate the expression of social behavior in the adult gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica), a non-traditional model. We also investigated the non-associative learning abilities of these animals. Following a period of social isolation, animals of both sexes were paired with a non-familiar, same-sex partner for 10 min on three different occasions, with 24-hour inter-trial intervals. We are the first research group to find significant sex differences in submissive and nonsocial behaviors in Monodelphis. Females displayed significantly higher durations of nonsocial behavior that increased over trials. Males were more aggressive; their latencies to the first attack and submissive behavior decreased over trials whereas these latencies increased for females; males' duration of submissive behavior increased over trials whereas it decreased for females. A different group of subjects habituated in response to repeated presentations to neutral odors and dishabituated in response to novel odors. In addition, both males and females demonstrated the ability to form social memories in a standard individual (social) recognition test. Our results contribute to the characterization of this marsupial species, an important first step in developing it as a model of complex social behaviors. • Biological sex and social experience modulated social behavior in the laboratory opossum (Monodelphis domestica). • Males displayed higher aggression, submission, and open-mouth posture; females displayed more nonsocial behaviors. • Social isolation stimulated male social interest; experience decreased male attack latency and increased it in females. • Males and females habituated/dishabituated to different stimuli, confirming non-associative learning abilities. • Monodelphis , a marsupial species, has great potential to serve as a model of complex social behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of androgens in shaping "masculine" traits in males is a core focus in behavioral endocrinology, but relatively little is known about an androgenic role in female aggression and social dominance. In mammalian models of female dominance, including the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), links to androgens in adulthood are variable. We studied the development of ring-tailed lemurs to address the behavioral basis and ontogenetic mechanisms of female dominance. We measured behavior and serum androgen concentrations in 24 lemurs (8 males, 16 females) from infancy to early adulthood, and assessed their 'prenatal' androgen milieu using serum samples obtained from their mothers during gestation. Because logistical constraints limited the frequency of infant blood sampling, we accounted for asynchrony between behavioral and postnatal hormone measurements via imputation procedures. Imputation was unnecessary for prenatal hormone measurements. The typical sex difference in androgen concentrations in young lemurs was consistent with adult conspecifics and most other mammals; however, we found no significant sex differences in rough-and-tumble play. Female (but not male) aggression increased beginning at approximately 15 months, coincident with female puberty. In our analyses relating sexually differentiated behavior to androgens, we found no relationship with activational hormones, but several significant relationships with organizational hormones. Notably, associations of prenatal androstenedione and testosterone with behavior were differentiated, both by offspring sex and by type of behavior within offspring sexes. We discuss the importance of considering (1) missing data in behavioral endocrinology research, and (2) organizational androgens other than testosterone in studies of female dominance. • Androgens may influence female aggression and dominance. • Across species, links between androgens and female dominance are variable. • We collected longitudinal data on juvenile Lemur catta and their mothers. • Despite typical androgenic sex differences, female aggression rises during development. • Maternal androgens predict offspring play and aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]