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The ability to directly track the charge carrier in a battery as it inserts/extracts from an electrode during charge/discharge provides unparalleled insight for researchers into the working mechanism of the device. This crystallographic-electrochemical information can be used to design new materials or modify electrochemical conditions to improve battery performance characteristics, such as lifetime. Critical to collecting operando data used to obtain such information in situ while a battery functions are X-ray and neutron diffractometers with sufficient spatial and temporal resolution to capture complex and subtle structural changes. The number of operando battery experiments has dramatically increased in recent years, particularly those involving neutron powder diffraction. Herein, the importance of structure-property relationships to understanding battery function, why in situ experimentation is critical to this, and the types of experiments and electrochemical cells required to obtain such information are described. For each battery type, selected research that showcases the power of in situ and operando diffraction experiments to understand battery function is highlighted and future opportunities for such experiments are discussed. The intention is to encourage researchers to use in situ and operando techniques and to provide a concise overview of this area of research., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Spinel LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LNMO) is a promising cathode candidate for the next‐generation high energy‐density lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs). Unfortunately, the application of LNMO is hindered by its poor cycle stability. Now, site‐selectively doped LNMO electrode is prepared with exceptional durability. In this work, Mg is selectively doped onto both tetrahedral (8a) and octahedral (16c) sites in the Fd3‾ m structure. This site‐selective doping not only suppresses unfavorable two‐phase reactions and stabilizes the LNMO structure against structural deformation, but also mitigates the dissolution of Mn during cycling. Mg‐doped LNMOs exhibit extraordinarily stable electrochemical performance in both half‐cells and prototype full‐batteries with novel TiNb2O7 counter‐electrodes. This work pioneers an atomic‐doping engineering strategy for electrode materials that could be extended to other energy materials to create high‐performance devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

LiCoO2 (LCO) with average particle distribution of 8 μm (LCO‐A) and 11 μm (LCO‐B) exhibit substantial differences in cycle performance. The half‐cells have similar first‐cycle discharge capacities of 173 and 175 mAh/g at 0.25 C, but after 100 cycles, the discharge capacities are substantially different, that is, 114 and 141 mAh/g for LCO‐A and LCO‐B, respectively. Operando neutron powder diffraction of full LCO||Li4Ti5O12 batteries show differences in the LCO reaction mechanism underpinning the electrochemical behavior. LCO‐A follows a purely solid solution reaction during cycling compared to the solid solution and two‐phase reaction mechanism in LCO‐B. The absence of the two‐phase reaction in LCO‐A is consistent with a homogeneous distribution of Li throughout the particle. The two‐phase reaction in LCO‐B reflects two distinguishable distributions of Li within the particles. The faster capacity decay in LCO‐A is correlated to an increase in electrode cracking during battery cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing lithium-ion battery technology is struggling to meet our increasing requirements for high energy density, long lifetime, and low-cost energy storage. Here, a hybrid electrode design is developed by a straightforward reengineering of commercial electrode materials, which has revolutionized the "rocking chair" mechanism by unlocking the role of anions in the electrolyte. Our proof-of-concept hybrid LiFePO4 (LFP)/graphite electrode works with a staged deintercalation/intercalationmechanismof Li+ cations and PF6 - anions in a broadened voltage range, which was thoroughly studied by ex situ X-ray diffraction, ex situ Raman spectroscopy, and operando neutron powder diffraction. Introducing graphite into the hybrid electrode accelerates its conductivity, facilitating the rapid extraction/insertion of Li+ from/into the LFP phase in 2.5 to 4.0 V. This charge/discharge process, in turn, triggers the in situ formation of the cathode/electrolyte interphase (CEI) layer, reinforcing the structural integrity of the whole electrode at high voltage. Consequently, this hybrid LFP/graphite-20% electrode displays a high capacity and long-term cycling stability over 3,500 cycles at 10 C, superior to LFP and graphite cathodes. Importantly, the broadened voltage range and high capacity of the hybrid electrode enhance its energy density, which is leveraged further in a full-cell configuration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dissimilar lattice-evolution of the isostructural layered Li(Ni,Co,Al)O2 (NCR) and Li(Ni,Co,Mn)O2 (CGR) cathodes in commercial lithium-ion batteries during overcharging/discharging was examined using operando neutron powder-diffraction. The stacking axis (c parameter) of both cathodes expands on initial lithiation and contracts on further lithiation. Although both the initial increase and later decrease are smaller for the CGR cathode, the overall change between battery charged and discharged states of the c parameter is larger for the CGR (1.29%) than for the NCR cathode (0.33%). We find these differences are correlated to the transition metal to oxygen bond (as measured through the oxygen positional-parameter) which is specific to the different cathode chemistries. Finally, we note the formation of and suggest a model for a LiCx intermediate between graphite and LiC12 in the anode of both batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Structure-property relations are central to understanding functional materials, and for battery research the use of neutron powder diffraction to reveal the atomistic and molecular-scale origin of battery performance characteristics is often essential. Although operando experiments of this kind are increasingly common as neutron sources and instrumentation advance, these experiments are hindered by the often large barrier presented by the preparation of whole batteries that yield a neutron diffraction signal from the electrode of interest that is sufficient to extract detailed structural information. This article presents a custom battery that is specifically designed for operando neutron powder diffraction. The battery is a pouch type and contains layers of positive and negative electrodes in a parallel-connecting stack. Importantly, the battery can be easily prepared in most laboratories, is configurable, and can be used with both lithium and sodium charge carriers. This paper provides some example operando neutron powder diffraction studies using this battery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This work uses real-time in situ neutron powder diffraction to study the electrode lattice response and anode phase evolution in a commercial lithium-ion battery. We show that the time-resolved lattice response of the Li x CoO2 cathode and Li x C6 anode under non-equilibrium conditions varies proportionally with the applied current, where higher current results in faster structural change. Higher current also reduces the Li x CoO2 cathode c lattice parameter and the LiC6 quantity that forms at the charged state of the battery, both of which are related to lower battery capacity. At the anode, we find that the Li x C6 phase evolution is current-dependent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In-situ neutron powder diffraction was employed to investigate the structural evolution of the electrode materials in a commercial lithium-ion battery used for electric buses in Taiwan. The battery, containing a vanadium-added LiFePO4 cathode, does not exhibit a delayed phase transition between LiFePO4 (triphylite) and FePO4 (heterosite) suggesting that the delayed phase transition can be suppressed through the use of vanadium-added LiFePO4 cathodes, which also enhances the capacity and prolongs the cycle life of these batteries. Furthermore, we characterize the readily reversible structural change of the anode (Li x C6 where 0 < x ≦ 1) and correlate this to battery voltage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This work presents the first in-situ neutron diffraction study of the MoS2 electrode, undertaken in a custom-built Li-ion battery during discharge. A review of custom-designed cells for in-situ neutron diffraction experiments is presented along with our optimised cell, which we use to show real-time information corresponding to Li-insertion into MoS2 via disappearance of the (103) reflection and increase in the d-spacing of the (002) reflection. The changes in the diffraction patterns begin at the 1.1V plateau and are complete during the 0.5V plateau. Sequential Rietveld-refinement indicates the presence of an intermediate lithiated phase (Li x MoS2) between MoS2 and LiMoS2. We observe the disappearance of all reflections for the MoS2, corresponding to the loss of long-range order, during the 0.5V plateau and no new diffraction peaks appear with further electrochemical cycling. This result is indicative of a transformation from long-range ordered MoS2 to short-range ordered LiMoS2, a result that we confirm using ex-situ synchrotron X-ray and neutron diffraction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]