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Waste office paper (WOP), was used to produce microbial lipids using Cryptococcus curvatus. Pretreatment of WOP with 1% (v/v) sulfuric acid removed the lignin without any inhibitor formation and increased the cellulose content. The optimum conditions for enzymatic hydrolysis of WOP were predicted at 92 h, 50 FPU/g cellulase, 50 CBU/g β-glucosidase, 5% substrate loading, 50 mL working volume and 156 rpm using the central composite design. The maximum sugar yield obtained in the validation experiment was 35.3 g/L. Ammonium chloride and yeast extract combination were more suitable for lipid production by C. curvatus with the carbon to nitrogen ratio of 60. A maximum biomass 11.48 ± 0.09 g/L was obtained at 120 h with a lipid yield of 4.95 ± 0.02 g/L. The lipid profile studies reveal the presence of 11 fatty acid methyl esters. These predominantly comprised of (%, w/w) 50.8% oleic acid, 25.7% palmitoleic acid, 7.1% stearic acid, and 6.5% myristic acid. The characteristic features of the biodiesel, such as cetane number, cold performance, density and iodine value met the requirements of the international standard (EN14214). Thus, the WOP could be a potential renewable feedstock to produce microbial lipids which are essential for the future sustainable production of biodiesel. • Waste office paper was used as a feedstock for microbial lipid production. • Dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment increased the cellulose content of waste paper. • Optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis yielded 35.3 g/L of glucose. • Lipid profiling of obtained FAMEs showed high similarities with vegetable oil. • The produced biodiesel properties are on par with international standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel, as a green fuel, acts as a potential candidate to supplement conventional fossil fuels. This research study targets green environment (using biodiesel) and clean environment (reduce wastewater) by producing biodiesel through oleaginous biomasses (Yarrowia lipolytica , Metschnikowia pulcherrima and Lipomyces starkeyi) grown on pulp and paper industrial wastewater. Batch culture studies were explored for the potential feedstock of the oleaginous organism by the synthesis of single cell oil and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to design the optimal experimental matrix and identify the optimal process conditions that enhance the FAME yield. To determine the inherent characteristics of the growth of oleaginous biomasses on the industrial wastewater, a data-driven adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) is implemented. Y. lipolytica strain cultured shown high biomass concentration of 32.36 g/l with biomass productivity of 5.39 g/l/d was considered for further scale-up for the transesterification process. Results indicated that the maximum yield of 0.48 (g-biodiesel/g-lipid) was obtained under the 2.5 g of lipid dosage with 0.02 g/ml of catalyst concentration by constant stirring at 70 °C. The optimum conditions to achieve maximum FAME yield of 1.154 g/g was obtained at 2.485 g, 70.87 °C and 0.021 g/ml for lipid dosage, temperature and catalyst concentrations, respectively. • Growth of Y. lipolytica, M. pulcherrima and L. starkeyi yeasts on paper and pulp wastewater explored • Bagasse seepage water, bagasse wash water and hardwood wash water were used • FTIR spectroscopical analysis confirmed the presence of prime biodiesel components • Enhanced FAME yield (1.154) was accomplished by response surface methodology optimization • ANFIS demonstrated the intrinsic characteristics of transesterification process for the better prediction of FAME yield [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide pulp and paper industry is recognized as a serious threat due to the discharge of various toxic contents present in its effluent to the surrounding environment. To combat this challenge, the role of oleaginous yeast to utilize the pulp and paper industry effluent for the integrated toxic contents removal and sustainable biodiesel production were undertaken. Oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium kratochvilovae HIMPA1 was used as a model organism for its unique ability to utilize pulp and paper industry effluent as a culture medium and accumulate high quantity of triacylglycerol or neutral lipids as large size lipid droplets of 4.56 ± 0.24 μm within its cellular compartment. The maximum cell dry weight (13.87 g/L) with total lipid yield of 8.56 g/L was obtained after 144 h of cultivation. Data showed significant reduction in effluent toxic components i.e. color, 89%; lignin, 94.27%; phenol, 99.60%; biochemical oxygen demand, 77.36%; total dissolved solids, 84.59%; and chemical oxygen demand, 94.22%. Fatty acid methyl esters profile revealed high quantity of long chain monounsaturated fatty acids (45.43%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (15.91%) that improves biodiesel quality under low temperature condition in terms of low cold filter plugging point along with good oxidative stability and cetane number as per American Society for Testing and Materials D6751-02 and European Committee for Standardization - EN14214 guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Waste office paper was utilized as a substrate for microbial lipid production. • A detailed optimization study has been conducted for biomass and lipid yield. • Optimization results in10.55 g/L biomass, 6.13 g/L lipid with 58% lipid content. • Biodiesel properties of the produced lipids met with the international standards. • A solution to mitigate the hazardous effects caused by waste and fossil fuel. Environmental issues caused by fossil fuel and its rapid depletion demand the need to produce biofuel from renewable energy resources. The disposal of waste paper in landfills causes air pollution and contaminates groundwater. Hence, exploiting paper waste as a renewable resource for microbial lipid production can solve these environmental issues in a greener way. Further, these microbial lipids are a reliable source for biodiesel production. In this study, waste office paper was utilized as a substrate to produce microbial lipids through fermentation by the oleaginous yeast, Rhodosporidium toruloides, using a biorefinery approach. The production conditions were optimized using the Box-Behnken design; a fermentation time of 116.16 h, a C/N ratio of 60, and an inoculum concentration of 9.67% yielded a biomass of 10.55 g/L and a lipid yield of 6.13 g/L with a total lipid content of 58%. The major lipids produced were oleic acid (42%), palmitic acid (36%), stearic acid (9.8%), and myristic acid (8%), which clearly indicates the suitability of the lipids produced by R. toruloides for biodiesel production. The predicted biodiesel properties of the transesterified product met the international standard specifications. Hence, utilizing waste office paper for biodiesel production will be an effective way of mitigating the environmental pollution caused by waste paper and the harvesting of fossil fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Algae-based wastewater bioremediation offers a cost-effective method for sustainably treating wastewater while simultaneously addressing global water scarcity and pollution. This study highlights the benefits of treating primary-treated (PTW) and secondary-treated (STW) paper-pulp industrial wastewaters using the microalga Tetradesmus obliquus (Turpin) Kützing. A batch culture study revealed that 50 % secondary treated wastewater can increase the biomass yield 1.8 fold to 2.51 g L−1 in 15 days with a corresponding lipid yield of 390.2 mg L−1. Upscaling this work in 200 L open raceway ponds with 50 % STW as the growth medium showed areal biomass and lipid productivities of 26.80 and 3.90 g m−2 day−1, respectively, in 15 days at 20 cm culture depth. This translates to a projected high annual biomass productivity of approximately 85.0 tons hectare−1 year−1 based on datasets spanning two consecutive years. Bioremediation efficiencies of 80.0 %, 91.51 %, and 92.10 % were achieved for COD, TOC, and NH 4 + respectively. Biodiesel produced showed a large percentage of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids (∼90 %) and its fuel properties complied with the global biodiesel standards. This study thus shows that using paper-pulp industrial wastewater for algal growth offers a sustainable solution for energy generation and wastewater treatment, with significant implications for environmental sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste paper has a potential to serve as renewable feedstock for the biorefineries of fuels, chemicals and materials due to rich in cellulose and its abundance at low cost. In the present study, pretreated waste office paper (WOP) was enzymatically hydrolysed and used for lipid production by Cryptococcus curvatus . The results suggested that the WOP hydrolysate supplemented with ammonium sulphate (2 g/L) and yeast extract (0.5 g/L) as nitrogen source at a C/N ratio of 80 were the most suitable for high yield of lipids. The biomass, lipid yield, lipid content and lipid coefficient achieved from batch cultivation of C. curvatus using untreated and pretreated WOP hydrolysates were 6.32 and 15.20 g/L, 1.39 and 5.75 g/L, 22 and 37.8%, and 99.9 and 234.6 mg/g sugar with the productivity of 0.02 and 0.08 g/L/h, respectively. The fatty acid profile of the lipids indicated that the oleic acid was the major fatty acid followed by palmitic acid, stearic acid and linoleic acid which is quite similar to plant/vegetable oils. Thus, the results suggested that the waste office paper could be an alternative feedstock for production of microbial lipids for biodiesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The valorisation of industrial wastepaper was studied. • The glucose and xylose yields were both 95 mol% respect to glucan and xylan. • The sequential utilisation of glucose and xylose for lipid production was observed. • L. starkeyi converted undetoxified hydrolysate into oil with a yield of 20.2 wt%. • The lipid profile of the microbial oil was similar to those of typical vegetable oils. Single cell oil (SCO) represents an outstanding alternative to both fossil sources and vegetable oils from food crops waste. In this work, an innovative two-step process for the conversion of cellulosic paper mill waste into SCO was proposed and optimised. Hydrolysates containing glucose and xylose were produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of the untreated waste. Under the optimised reaction conditions (Cellic® CTec2 25 FPU/g glucan, 48 h, biomass loading 20 g/L), glucose and xylose yields of 95 mol% were reached. The undetoxified hydrolysate was adopted as substrate for a batch-mode fermentation by the oleaginous yeast Lipomyces starkeyi. Lipid yield, content for single cell, production and maximum oil productivity were 20.2 wt%, 37 wt%, 3.7 g/L and 2.0 g/L/d respectively. This new generation oil, obtained from a negative value industrial waste, represents a promising platform chemical for the production of biodiesel, biosurfactants, animal feed and biobased plastics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paper mill sludge (PMS) was assessed as cheap renewable lignocellulosic biomass for lipid production by the oleaginous yeast Cryptococcus vishniaccii (MTCC 232). The sonicated paper mill sludge extract (PMSE) exhibited enhanced lipid yield and lipid content 7.8 ± 0.57 g/l, 53.40% in comparison to 5.5 ± 0.8 g/l, 40.44% glucose synthetic medium, respectively. The accumulated triglycerides (TAG) inside the lipid droplets (LDs) were converted to biodiesel by transesterification and thoroughly characterized using GC–MS technique. The fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profile obtained reveals elevated content of oleic acid followed by palmitic acid, linoleic acid and stearic acid with improved oxidative stability related to biodiesel quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study, performance of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) connected with paper-structured catalyst (PSC) was evaluated in the direct feed of wet oleic fatty acid methyl ester (oleic-FAME, C19H36O2), which is a mono-unsaturated component of practical biodiesel fuels (BDFs), in the steam to carbon ratio (S/C) range between 2.0 and 3.5, and high current density of 1 A cm−2 (at 0.7 V) was recorded at 800 °C. Long term stability of oleic-FAME fueled SOFC was achieved by the incorporation of PSC into SOFC even under severe operating condition prone to coking (direct feed of unsaturated hydrocarbon with carbon number 19 and low S/C ratio of 2.0). After 100 h test, coking was not observed in both SOFC anode and PSC. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A cheap and simple procedure for the simultaneous colorimetric determination of glycerol, magnesium and calcium in biodiesel samples using a paper-based analytical device (PAD) was developed. A reversed-phase air-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (RP-AA-DLLME) approach was proposed and used for glycerol, magnesium and calcium separation from biodiesel samples into aqueous phase (sodium periodate solution). After RP-AA-DLLME the obtained hydrophilic emulsion (biodiesel fuel in water) containing target analytes was introduced to a sample zone of the PAD, and as the emulsion penetrated through hydrophilic cellulose fibers to detection zones its destruction was observed. Colorimetric detection of calcium and magnesium with Eriochrome Black T and derivative of glycerol (formaldehyde) with acetylacetone on the detection zones of the PAD was implemented using conventional scanner and Corel® PHOTO-PAINT™ X7 software. Under optimal conditions, the calibration curves were linear in the ranges 100–300 μg g−1 for glycerol and 1–15 μg g−1 for calcium and magnesium. The limits of detection, calculated from a blank test based on 3σ, were 30 μg g−1 for glycerol and 0.3 μg g−1 for calcium and magnesium. The PAD was successfully applied for biodiesel samples analysis. A first paper-based analytical device for the simultaneous colorimetric determination of glycerol, calcium and magnesium in biodiesel samples was successfully developed. A novel approach for biodiesel samples pretreatment based on a reversed-phase air-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction was also proposed for the first time. The reversed-phase air-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction was coupled with paper-based analytical device and applied for the simultaneous colorimetric determination of glycerol, calcium and magnesium in biodiesel samples. In this study, it was found, that glycerol extraction kinetics from biodiesel samples to aqueous phase can be accelerated in the presence of periodate-ions due to analyte oxidation to water-soluble formaldehyde. This feature allowed improving glycerol extraction efficiency. The proposed procedure has several advantages including miniaturization, cost effectiveness and simplicity. Unlabelled Image • First paper-based analytical device (PAD) for biodiesel analysis • Reversed-phase air-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (RP-AA-DLLME) • RP-AA-DLLME coupled with PAD • Cheap and simple glycerol, Ca, Mg determination in biodiesel using PAD [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Producing biodiesel via transesterification of waste oils or fats with short-chain alcohol is one of the possible ways to alleviate global energy and environmental issues, and further reducing the cost of transesterification catalyst is the essential strategy to enhance the competitiveness of biodiesel, such as applying industrial solid wastes as the source of catalyst active species. Thus in this work, via one-step pyrolysis of the calcium-rich residue, a byproduct from the hydrothermal treating (140–180 °C for 2–4 h) of paper mill sludge (PMS), a novel walnut-shaped calcium oxide-cancrinite based catalyst was prepared and applied to the transesterification of waste frying oil. The hydrothermal condition (changed from 140 oC-2 h to 180 oC-4 h) of PMS slightly influenced the yield of fatty acid methyl ester (Y FAME), which ranged from 98.87% to 96.95% due to the slight decrease of the total basicity of strong basic sites (TSB β+γ) from 149.6 to 102.9 μmol g−1. On the contrary, the pyrolysis temperature had a much greater effect on the transesterification performance of obtained catalysts. The optimum pyrolysis temperature was 750 °C and when it was increased to 850 °C, the increased bonding tendency of Si with Ca passivated the activity of calcium species and reduced the basic intensity and basicity of PS C -850, thus lowering its transesterification activity. Besides, the key process parameters were optimized and at the conditions of 70 °C, 3 h, 6.0 wt% of catalyst dosage, 10:1 of molar ratio of methanol to oil, over 95% of Y FAME can be reached. The work herein not only provided a feasible way to recycle the inorganic solid residue of PMS but further lowered the cost of preparing biodiesel. [Display omitted] • The consistency analysis model and algorithm of grinding roundness error of workpiece journal are proposed. • The rationality of the proposed model is verified by experiments. • The Influence of roundness error batch consistency of workpiece journal grinding is studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Wastepaper was converted into VFAs through anaerobic open culture fermentation. • VFAs derived from wastepaper were utilized for microbial lipid production. • No additional nutrients/chemicals added for the lipid production. • Fatty acid profile of lipids were similar to the plant/vegetable oils used for biodiesel. • Wastepaper could be converted as VFAs to use for lipids production, usable as biodiesel feedstock. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) derived from organic wastes are being considered as low-cost feedstock for microbial lipid production as a valuable alternative to plant derived oils/biodiesel. In this study, VFAs were produced from anaerobic open culture fermentation of wastepaper and subsequently, used as a feedstock for lipid production by Cryptococcus curvatus. Total VFAs, yield and productivity achieved from waste office paper (WOP) and waste newspaper (WNP) were 17.3 and 10.2 g/L, 0.17 and 0.10 g/g TS, and 0.86 and 0.51 g/L/day, respectively. Biomass, lipid content and productivity achieved utilizing VFAs derived from WOP and WNP were 4.3 and 2.9 g/L, 41.2 and 27.7% DCW, and 0.037 and 0.033 g/L/h, respectively. The dominance of fatty acids such as oleic, palmitic, stearic and linoleic acid in the lipids suggests a high level of similarity with plant/vegetable oils used for biodiesel production. Therefore, VFAs derived from wastepaper could be potentially used as feedstock to produce microbial lipids towards cost-effective production of biodiesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The valorisation of lignin is being increasingly recognised to improve the economics of pulp and paper making mills. In the present study, an integrated lignin–glycerol valorisation strategy is introduced with an overarching aim for enhancing the process value chains. LignoBoost kraft lignin was subjected to base-catalysed depolymerisation using glycerol as a co-solvent. The generated bio-oil was used as a renewable additive to biodiesel for enhancing its oxygen stability. The influence of three independent parameters including temperature, time and glycerol amount on lignin depolymerisation was investigated. Response surface methodology was applied to design the experiments and to optimise the process for maximising the yield and antioxidant impact of bio-oil. The results showed that glycerol has a positive qualitative and quantitative impact on the produced bio-oil, where an enhancement in the yield (up to 23.8%) and antioxidant activity (up to 99 min induction period) were achieved using the PetroOxy method (EN16091). The addition of 1 wt% bio-oil to biodiesel has led to an improvement in the oxidation stability over a neat sample of up to ∼340%, making it compliant with European standard (EN14214). The proposed process presents a biorefinery paradigm for the integrated utilisation of waste cooking oil, lignin and glycerol. [Display omitted] • Bio-additives from the base-catalysed depolymerisation of LignoBoost kraft lignin. • Effect of reaction variables on bio-oil yield and biodiesel oxidation stability. • Oxidation stability of biodiesel increased up to 340% by adding 1 wt% bio-additive. • An integrated biorefinery concept for valorising lignin and glycerol waste streams. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Three acid-based physico-chemical processes for glycerol purification are assessed. • H 2 SO 4 -based process is the best option with net-savings in 17 out of 18 impacts. • Credits for the purified glycerol and co-products offset the impacts of the process. • H 2 SO 4 -based treatment performs better than incineration in ten out of 18 impacts. • The results are sensitive to the crude glycerol composition and other assumptions. Biodiesel production produces significant quantities of impure crude glycerol as a by-product. Recent increases in the global biodiesel production have led to a surplus of crude glycerol, rendering it a waste. As a result, different methods for its valorisation are currently being investigated. This paper assesses the life cycle environmental impacts of an emerging technology for purification of crude glycerol – a multi-step physico-chemical treatment – in comparison to incineration with energy recovery commonly used for its disposal. For the former, three different acids (H 3 PO 4 , H 2 SO 4 and HCl) are considered for the acidification step in the purification process. The results suggest that the H 2 SO 4 -based treatment is the best option with 17 net-negative impacts out of the 18 categories considered; this is due to system credits for the production of purified glycerol, heat and potassium salts. In comparison to incineration with energy recovery, the H 2 SO 4 -based process has lower savings for the climate change impact (−311 versus −504 kg CO 2 eq./t crude glycerol) but it performs better in ten other categories. Sensitivity analyses suggest that that the impacts of the physico-chemical treatment are highly dependent on crude glycerol composition, allocation of burdens to crude glycerol and credits for glycerol production. For example, treating crude glycerol with lower glycerol content would increase all impacts except climate change and fossil depletion due to the higher consumption of chemicals and lower production of purified glycerol. Considering crude glycerol as a useful product rather than waste and allocating to it burdens from biodiesel production would increase most impacts significantly, including climate change (22–40 %), while fossil depletion, freshwater and marine eutrophication would become net-positive. The findings of this research will be of interest to the biodiesel industry and other industrial sectors that generate crude glycerol as a by-product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbonaceous catalysts obtained from agricultural residue could have potential in the production of biofuels such as biodiesel. This review paper discusses the preparation conditions (temperature, heating rate, hold time, inert gas flow rate, etc play key roles in development of textural characteristics of the catalysts) and functionalization methods of biochar and activated carbon derived from agricultural residues and their application to produce biodiesel. Research works reported in achieving maximum yield of biodiesel in terms of variable precursors, alcohol-to-oil ratio, reaction time and temperatures have been profoundly tabulated. Effect of textural properties of the biochar and activated carbon (such as surface area, total pore volume, average pore size, and functional group attached with the catalyst) on the biodiesel yield are examined. Studies on Regeneration and reusing of the spent catalysts are carefully inspected. The economic evaluation studies for the biochar and activated carbon and the applications of these for biodiesel production are scrutinized. Finally, the strategies to increase biomass and catalyst productivity, future prospect and research directions to enhance biofuel/biodiesel production and for the development of biochar and activated carbon from agricultural residues for sustainable biodiesel production is suggested. [Display omitted] • Preparation methods of biochar & activated carbon (AC) from AR examined. • Reaction conditions and mechanisms for biodiesel synthesis discussed. • Biodiesel yield correlated with surface area, pore volume & pore size of catalysts. • Regeneration & recycling of biochar & AC catalysts discussed for biodiesel yield. • Economic studies for biochar & AC production & application for biodiesel covered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The low calorific value and poor atomization of biodiesel seriously hinder its application. The development of nanotechnology has led people to focus on using nanoparticles to improve the performance of biodiesel/diesel. Metal nanoparticles have a high surface volume ratio and good heat transfer properties, which can compensate for the poor performance of biodiesel. However, some conflicting results have been found in the literature. Therefore, this review aims to elucidate the effect of metal nanoparticle addition to biodiesel/diesel on engine performance and emission characteristics. The stability of the nanofluid is particularly important when applying metal nanoparticles. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of nanofluid preparation and stability enhancement strategies. Finally, the effects of nanoparticles on human health are also discussed. The results show that adding metal nanoparticles positively affects diesel engines' performance and emission characteristics. For stability studies, it was found that very few evaluations of the stabilization time of nanofluids have been conducted. In addition, further reduction of their effects on human health is needed before large-scale commercial use. All content has been carefully summarized with the aim of providing reference for future research directions. [Display omitted] • The preparation methods of metal nanoparticles and nanofluids are introduced. • Methods to improve the stability of nanofluids are summarized. • Observed that the use of metal nanoparticles can significantly improve engine performance and emissions. • The hazards of metal nanoparticles to human health are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper briefly elaborates upon the combination of waste palm and waste sunflower oil methyl ester as post-mixed biodiesel blends being injected into a four-stroke compression ignition engine, which is also fueled with inducted bamboo leaf generated producer gas (BLP.gas) that includes gaseous components of CO (carbon monoxide), H 2 (hydrogen), CH 4 (methane), and C x H y (hydrocarbons). The objective of the present research is to evaluate the overall performance, emission, and combustion behavior of a Kirloskar TAF1 modified dual-fuel diesel engine fueled with induced bamboo leaf-derived gaseous fuel at a fixed mass flow rate of 21.69 kg/h and injected mixed biodiesel-diesel blends. Initially, diesel fuel and post-mixed methyl ester were examined in dual-fuel mode with a fixed gas flow rate for different loads. It can be seen from the analysis that brake thermal efficiency got reduced by 4.66% and brake-specific fuel consumption increased by 5.26% for PMOME20 (20% post-mixed oil methyl ester + 80% diesel fuel) + BLP. gas with respect to diesel fuel at extreme loading conditions. Moreover, smoke opacity, carbon monoxide, and unburnt hydrocarbons were reduced by 11.22%, 20.44%, and 10.36%, respectively. On the other hand, oxides of nitrogen were reduced by 19.17% at maximum load for PMOME20 + BLP. gas in dual-fuel operation in contrast to that of petroleum diesel. In light of this, the current research concluded that the use of biodiesel and BLP. gas for dual-operative engines may be regarded as an appropriate option for reducing pollutant environment and petroleum fuel scarcity. • Influence of mixed biodiesel blends with induced bamboo leaf gaseous fuel were investigated. • NOx and smoke opacity showed trade-off curve of 19.11% and 11.22% lower emission for PMOME20+BLP.gas than diesel. • CO 2 emission for PMOME20+BLP.gas was 38.77% higher than diesel at peak load. • PMOME20+BLP.gas at peak load increased In-CP by 6.15% in contrast to diesel. • HRR and ID for PMOME20+BLP.gas decreased by 72.29% and 9.06% in contrast to diesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With industrialization and development in modern science enzymes and their applications increased widely. There is always a hunt for new proficient enzymes with novel properties to meet specific needs of various industrial sectors. Along with the high efficiency, the green and eco-friendly side of enzymes attracts human attention, as they form a true answer to counter the hazardous and toxic conventional industrial catalyst. Lipases have always earned industrial attention due to the broad range of hydrolytic and synthetic reactions they catalyse. When these catalytic properties get accompanied by features like temperature stability, pH stability, and solvent stability lipases becomes an appropriate tool for use in many industrial processes. Extremophilic lipases offer the same, thermostable: hot and cold active thermophilic and psychrophilic lipases, acid and alkali resistant and active acidophilic and alkaliphilic lipases, and salt tolerant halophilic lipases form excellent biocatalyst for detergent formulations, biofuel synthesis, ester synthesis, food processing, pharmaceuticals, leather, and paper industry. An interesting application of these lipases is in the bioremediation of lipid waste in harsh environments. The review gives a brief account on various extremophilic lipases with emphasis on thermophilic, psychrophilic, halophilic, alkaliphilic, and acidophilic lipases, their sources, biochemical properties, and potential applications in recent decades. • Extremophilic lipases include hot and cold active thermophilic and psychrophilic lipases, acid and alkali resistant and active acidophilic and alkaliphilic lipases, and salt tolerant halophilic lipases. • Microorganisms as sources of extremophilic lipases and their adaptations. • Extremophilic lipases as catalyst for detergent formulations, biofuel synthesis, ester synthesis, food processing, pharmaceuticals, leather, and paper industry. • Scope of genetic manipulation and continuous production on cheap substrates point towards the biotechnological potency of extremophilic lipases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing biodiesel production generates important amounts of glycerol, by-product that require the development of new and sustainable processes in order to be converted into value added chemicals. In this paper special attention was given to possibility to transform glycerol into solketal, a promising fuel additive able to enhance stability to oxidation and increase the octane number of fuels. Given that the chemical reaction is thermodynamically limited, the current paper proposes a conceptual design of an industrial scale process flowsheet based on a modified structure of a catalytic distillation dividing wall column (CDDWC) in which acetone is used as a stripping agent, in an integrated reaction-separation structured-packing system. The modeling and simulation results performed in Aspen Hysys shown the technical feasibility, the glycerol conversion in the proposed process being over 99% and the purity of the solketal product over 99.5% (wt) with a high-quality utility (16 barg pressure steam) consumption of 2441 kJ/kg close to other values reported in the literature and an acetone specific consumption of 0.495 kg/kg solketal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates the potential of using biodiesel from Dunaliella tertiolecta in the internal combustion engine to reduce emissions and fuel consumption and increase power output. The high cost of microalgae biomass production, the low efficiency of converting biomass into biodiesel and the increase in NOx production and fuel consumption with the combination of biodiesel in high percentages are the problems of this issue. In this article, by using the new solar still desalination/parabolic trough collector/geothermal hybrid system to supply the required water and heat and to investigate the effect of the influencing factors, the efficiency of microalgae production and transesterification process's conversion efficiency were obtained as 1.04 g/L and 80.22%, respectively. The addition of biodiesel from 0% to 20% in the fuel decreased CO, SOx and HC emissions, but CO 2 and NOx emissions increased. Also, fuel consumption increased and engine output power decreased. The optimum point was found in order to emit the least emissions and reduce fuel consumption and increase the output power for the composition percentage of 11.5% biodiesel in the fuel. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• BSFL biodiesel shows lesser environmental impacts than other types of biodiesel. • BSFL valorization has 100x lesser global warming potential than sludge landfilling. • BSFL lipid content is the most sensitive factor that affects the LCA outcomes. • Sludge pre-treatment inflicts the most impact on BSFL biodiesel production. More energy is needed nowadays due to global population growth. Concurrently, sewage sludge generation has also increased steadily stemming from the inevitable urbanization. As such, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) can be potentially deployed to solve both issues. This paper investigates the environmental sustainability of biodiesel production derived from sludge-fed BSFL feedstock. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed through SimaPro software utilizing the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) and Endpoint (H) methods. The entire LCA covered 3 main stages, including the thermal pre-treatment of sludge, BSFL rearing and processing, and lastly lipid extraction and biodiesel production. LCA showed that the sludge pre-treatment stage had the highest environmental impact, while BSFL rearing and processing had the least due to the suitable geographical climate. Electricity usage during the pre-treatment stage was the main contributing component, followed by chemical usage during biodiesel production. After normalizing, it was observed that land occupation, marine ecotoxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity and freshwater eutrophication were more impactful than the commonly studied global warming potential (GWP). Lipid content and biodiesel conversion efficiency were determined as the sensitive factors which could influence the LCA outcome. In comparison with other types of biodiesel, BSFL biodiesel had a milder impact in terms of climate change, land occupation, terrestrial acidification, marine and freshwater eutrophication. Furthermore, this biological reduction of sludge through BSFL valorization avoided sludge landfilling, which reduced up to 100 times GWP. Therefore, sludge-fed BSFL biodiesel production is an environmentally-sound and highly potential solution that should be investigated comprehensively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Process analysis was performed for the biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. • Analysis was performed for an innovative process based on hydrodynamic cavitation. • Several scenarios were presented which take into account the type of the feedstock. • The replacement of the virgin oil with waste oil reduces the operative costs. • Further reduction of the costs can be obtained by using the innovative process. Biodiesel production calls for innovative solutions to turn into a competitive process with a reduced environmental impact. One of the process bottlenecks stands in the immiscibility of oil and alcohol as raw materials, so mixing process largely impacts the overall process cost. This process step, if carried out by using hydrodynamic cavitation, has the possibility to become a benchmark for large scale applications. In this paper a process analysis of biodiesel production scheme is developed starting from two different feedstocks, virgin oil and waste cooking oil. At the first the traditional process scheme has been simulated, in a second simulation, the reactor for the biodiesel production is interchanged with a hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. In the paper, the comparison between the traditional and innovative process by using life cycle costing approach has been presented, thus providing indications for industrial technological implementation coming from a professional tool for process analysis. It is worth noting that the introduction of hydrodynamic cavitation reduces of about 40% the energy consumption with respect to the traditional process. As regards the total treatment costs, when using virgin oil as feedstock, they were in the range 820–830 €/t (innovative and traditional process, respectively); while starting from waste cooking oil the costs decreased of about 60%, down to 290–300 €/t (innovative and traditional process, respectively). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional homogeneous catalysts are non-biodegradable, requiring complicated downstream separation, further diminishing the overall economics. In this paper, a new heterogeneous catalyst, a metal-organic framework modified by biomaterials (Bio-MOF), complexed with an ionic liquid ([HMIM][HSO 4 ]/Bio-MOF), has been synthesized and integrated with microbubble mediated mass transfer technology to overcome the challenges of low conversion. The ionic liquid 1-methylimidazole hydrogen sulfate provides enhanced reactivity, while the Bio-MOF provides more active sites for the reaction. Detailed kinetic analysis suggests the biodiesel production reaction occurs on the vapor/liquid (microalgae oil) interface. The results revealed a higher conversion of (molar ratio of oil: methanol =1: 15, catalyst loading = 0.5 wt% of MO, temperature = 70 ºC) 92 ± 4% was achieved in 30 min relative to acid-catalyzed biodiesel production. Along with higher reactivity and larger surface area provided by the catalysts, the unprecedented higher conversion and rate of reaction is attributed to the "local" excess of alcohol present at the interface and simultaneous removal of water from the reactor. The results of activation energy (7.9 kJ mol−1), enthalpy (4.92 kJ mol−1), entropy (−287 J mol−1), and Gibbs free energy (103.58 kJ mol−1) show that current process required less energy is required for biodiesel production. The catalyst was recycled seven times and showed high stability with little reduction in its activity over these seven runs. The study demonstrates that this newly developed catalyst provides a high reaction rate and conversion of biodiesel production from microalgae oil using a heterogeneous catalyst by integrating it with microbubble-mediated mass transfer. [Display omitted] • Potential of microbubble technology being used to improve biorefinery development. • Wastewater treated with microalgae achieved EU standard discharge limit. • Maximum Chlorella vulgaris oil conversion using ([HMIM][HSO 4 ]/Bio-MOF) is 92 ± 4%. • The kinetics show esterification reaction occurs on the bubble/liquid interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with the optimized conversion of undetoxified wheat straw hydrolysates into microbial lipids by two oleaginous yeasts, Yarrowia lipolytica and Lipomyces tetrasporus. Wheat straw were pretreated by steam explosion at 203 °C for 300 s and hydrolysed at 20% solid-to-liquid ratio by using an enzymatic loading of 15 FPU/g substrate. The mixed wheat straw hydrolysates (WHS) contained 86 gL-1 glucose and 22 gL-1 xylose, 2.3 gL-1 acetic acid, 0.9 gL-1 furanic compounds. The fermentation process was optimized in terms of the inoculum age and density, medium composition, and bioreactor feeding strategy. In particular, the different capacity of the two yeasts to overcome the toxic effect of the biomass degradation by-products, in different inoculum ages, was deeply investigated. Two hydrolysates concentration were tested: WSH containing 86 gL-1 glucose and 22 gL-1 xylose and the diluted medium containing 40 gL-1 glucose and 22 gL-1 xylose. The results indicated that both yeasts were able to detoxify WSH and grow on undetoxified hydrolysates as effect of the intrinsic capacity to metabolize the furan derivatives. Y. lipolytica was able to detoxify the medium in all the investigated set-ups, while L. tetrasporus was able to detoxify the medium only if inoculated in the stationary phase of growth. After the process optimization in shaken flasks, the production of Single Cell Oils (SCOs) by L. tetrasporus was carried out in a medium-scale bioreactor of 10L obtaining lipid yield and cell content of 21% and 62%, respectively. The extracted SCOs, with high oleic and palmitic acid content, were converted into biodiesel displaying overall features in accordance with international biodiesel standards, namely ASTM and EN 14214. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel has the potential to be used as an alternative to diesel fuel, while NO X emissions from biodiesel engine are higher than those of diesel engine. According to the Zeldovich mechanism, thermal NO is the main pathway for NO X formation. Therefore, studying the temperature of biodiesel combustion flame is of great significance for understanding the formation mechanism of NO X. Hence, this paper is devoted to the investigation of effects of biodiesel combustion flame temperature on NO X formation by using Endoscope high-speed photography. The experimental work has been carried out on a diesel engine fueled with three different blending-ratios of biodiesel/diesel fuel (B0, B50, B100). The image of the engine combustion process was captured by high-speed endoscopic photography, and the flame temperature field distribution was calculated based on the brightness of the in-cylinder combustion flame image. The parameters of in-cylinder flame temperature and their changing laws with engine speed and blending-ratios were also analyzed by using six indicators, such as NO X formation flame area ( S NO ), flame area change velocity ( V NO ), mean flame area change velocity ( V NO M ), flame area duration ( ϕ NO ), flame appearance efficiency ( η NO ) and adiabatic flame temperature ( T P ). Results showed that with the increase of biodiesel fuel proportion, the positions of S NO appearance and disappearance were advanced, the peak values of S NO , V NO V NO M , η NO became greater, and ϕ NO became shorter, which indicated that more beneficial environment to NO X formation occurs as biodiesel fuel proportion increases. • Endoscope high-speed photography is used to capture the engine combustion process. • It provides a new method to calculate the in-cylinder flame temperature. • Six evaluating indicators are proposed to analyze the flame temperature characteristic. • It is found that the NO X formation environment of biodiesel is better than diesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ignition, injection, and micro-explosion characteristics of aviation fuel (RP-3)/ethanol mixed droplets and biodiesel/ethanol mixed droplets at different proportions under high temperature conditions (420 °C) were compared using an experimental setup. A device for measuring small droplet volumes was designed using an infusion set and different types of needles, and a corresponding equation was established. Mixed droplets suspended on high-temperature resistance nichrome wire with a diameter of 0.2 mm were heated by sending them to a position approximately 2 mm from the forklift preheating plug using a moving rail. SLR and high-speed cameras were used to observe the flame structure as well as the injection and micro-explosion of the mixed droplets during combustion, respectively. Expansion, injection, and micro-explosion were observed in the biodiesel/ethanol mixed droplet experiments when the biodiesel content was 60%. Although the micro-explosion of mixed droplets of aviation fuel/ethanol was not observed, expansion and ejection of the droplets were observed. Image Pro-plus software was used to calculate the diameters at different times in the combustion cycle of the droplets. Through this analysis, the occurrence of micro-explosion was described, and a model for the calculation of micro-explosion strength was established. • A method for measuring the any size volume of droplets was proposed. • Micro-explosion phenomena and the mechanism of their occurrence have been elucidated. • This paper redefined the concept of micro-explosion intensity, established the equation for calculating the micro-explosion intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Assessment of long-term testing in the selection of renewable oxygenated fuels for engines. • Evaluating fuel performance over extended durations, ensuring engine compatibility. • Holistic review covers the long-term effects of various oxygenated fuels on engine deposits, wear, and lubricating oil. • Comprehensive assessment of fuel performance with both fixed-bed laboratory engines and field/road vehicle engine testing. Long-term testing is crucial for evaluating renewable and non-carbon fuels for engines, ensuring compatibility and assessing their performance for extended periods. This is especially pertinent as researchers explore the addition of higher ethanol, hydrogen and ammonia content in gasoline as potential fuel additives. The paper extensively reviews the long-term effects of various fuels on engine deposits, wear, and lubricating oil. Studies indicate that biofuel blends can pose challenges in the long run, leading to increased deposits, engine wear, and lubricating oil degradation. However, some studies highlight the favorable impact of biofuel blends, due to their oxygenated nature. For instance, deposit formation in diesel-fuelled constant-speed engines was significantly lower than in JO5 and JO10-fuelled engines (512 h duration). Similarly, KB20-fuelled engines exhibited approximately 15.3 % higher deposit formation than diesel-fuelled engines (274 h duration). The oxygen content and superior lubrication properties of biodiesel blended fuels help in better combustion process and reduce engine deposits. The deposit formation on the fuel-injector affects the fuel pattern and engine performance. The performance and combustion characteristics degrade and emissions increase with time. The application of biodiesel observed to enhance corrosive behavior due to inherent oxygen, leads to increased wear and friction in engine components and fuel pump plunger. The formation of metal debris increases and lubrication oil degrades with respect engine operation time. This study provides insights into the long-term impact of various renewable biofuels and their blends on engine performance and discusses future prospects on engine tribological characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being an environmentally friendly fuel obtained from rapeseed oil, biodiesel is used extensively in Europe. However, the dependence structure between global crude oil prices and the European prices of biodiesel and rapeseed oil is understudied and unclear. In this paper, we address this gap by utilizing asymmetric copulas and cross-quantilogram approaches on daily data. The results of the DCC-Student-t copula indicate that during bearish periods the conditional connectedness between crude oil prices and biodiesel (rapeseed oil) prices are stronger than during bullish periods, indicating increased co-movement with a decline in crude oil prices. The application of cross-quantilogram indicates that an increase in crude oil price positively influences biodiesel prices reflecting an asymmetric dependence structure among the assets. There is evidence of shifts in the dynamics of quantile dependency during periods of financial and economic turmoil. Overall, the results show a significant dependence between the global crude oil market and the European markets of biodiesel and rapeseed oil in specific periods and under specific market conditions, which have important implications for policymakers and investors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Transesterification reactors for biodiesel production are comprehensively reviewed. • The effects of the main parameters on the transesterification process are scrutinized. • Pros and cons of each reactor technology for biodiesel production are outlined. • The sustainability aspects of biodiesel production are comprehensively discussed. • Policy and economic aspects of biodiesel have been extensively securitized. Diesel engines are preferred over spark ignition counterparts for heavy-duty applications and power generation plants because of their higher efficiency, durability, and productivity. Currently, the research interests have been propelled towards renewable and sustainable diesel fuels such as biodiesel in order to address the environmental and energy security challenges associated with these energy systems. However, the most challenging issue concerning large-scale production of biodiesel is its relatively high cost over fossil-based diesel owing to high feedstock and manufacturing costs. Therefore, cost-effective and eco-friendly biodiesel production technologies should be necessarily developed and continuously improved in order to make this biofuel more competitive vs. its petroleum counterpart. Accordingly, this paper comprehensively reviews biodiesel manufacturing techniques from natural oils and fats using conventional and advanced technologies with an in-depth state-of-the-art focus on the utmost important unit, i.e., transesterification reactor. The effects of the main influential parameters on the transesterification process are first discussed in detail in order to better understand the mechanisms behind each reactor technology. Different transesterification reactors; e.g. , tubular/plug-flow reactors, rotating reactors, simultaneous reaction-separation reactors, cavitational reactors, and microwave reactors are then scrutinized from the scientific and practical viewpoints. Merits and limitations of each reactor technology for biodiesel production are highlighted to guide future R&D on this topic. At the end of the paper, the sustainability aspects of biodiesel production are comprehensively discussed by emphasizing on the biorefinery concept utilizing waste-oriented oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The valorisation of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) in the circular economy context is of outmost importance. This review aimed to examine the state-of-the-art valorisation technologies of OFMSW as resource for bioethanol and biodiesel. Firstly, feedstock mapping was performed, where high fluctuation of parameters was revealed. Considering the mean values, the stoichiometries of mechanically and source-sorted OFMSW are C 22 H 44 O 28 N and C 20 H 36 O 16 N, respectively. The substrate's mean carbohydrates (50%) and lipids (13%) contents reflect its potential in bioethanol and biodiesel production, respectively. As far as bioethanol is concerned, this paper critically reviewed the existing variance of second-generation bioethanol production methodologies from OFMSW revealing that high bioethanol yields (over 80%) could be achieved if the treatment steps of pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation are synergistically compiled. To this end, bioethanol yield could benefit from suitable enzymatic blends. Furthermore, this paper discussed about different ways of oil extraction from OFMSW and various biodiesel production techniques. Soxhlet extraction combined with alkaline transesterification emerged as the most widely applied biodiesel production line from OFMSW. The novelty of this literature review lies in the integration of both bioethanol and biodiesel production processes, in a biorefinery concept that would allow the production of both biofuels along with that of biogas. This integration scenario rendered an energy efficiency expressed as energy content in products per energy in raw materials equal to 68%, proving that OFMSW is a feedstock that could meet the sustainability criteria for biofuels production. Image 1 • Up to date information on the composition of OFMSW. • Bioethanol production from OFMSW; pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation, stillage. • Biodiesel production from OFMSW; oil extraction, transesterification. • Bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas production from OFMSW under the biorefinery concept. • Integrated biorefinery exhibits various technical and energy benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the combustion model of industrial furnace was established using numerical simulations. The application of air-staged combustion technology was used to solve the problem of high NO X emissions produced from the combustion of biodiesel in industrial furnaces. The simulation results were verified through experiments. The effects of secondary air distribution position (Z sec), secondary air distribution ratio (f sec) and the excess air coefficient (α) on the temperature field, incident radiation field and NO X concentration field distribution in the furnace were also studied. It was found that the simulated temperature and NO X concentration at the outlet of furnace were in good agreement with the experimentally determined results. When the staged combustion was not adopted, the NO X production in the furnace was at a high level. The average NOx concentration at the exit of the furnace was 0.000538 kg/m3. With the introduction of the staged ventilation technology, the lowest NO X production was 0.000276 kg/m3, the best reduction effect was 48.7%. The optimal two-air-staged combustion test conditions were included Z sec of 50%, f sec of 30%, and α of 1.15. • The air-staged combustion technology is applied to reduce emissions. • With the introduction of air-staged technology, the optimum emission reduction is 48.7%. • These optimum air-staged conditions are found to be: Z sec of 50%, f sec of 30%, and α of 1.15. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Comparison of diesel and biodiesel as fuels for H2 dual-fuel CI engine operation. • Adoption of biodiesel allows dual-fuel engine operation with higher EGR rates. • Biodiesel with high EGR rates can provide simultaneous reduction of NOx and soot. Abstract Hydrogen has recently attracted extensive attention as an internal combustion engine fuel to tackle the global carbon emissions problem. In a compression ignition engine, hydrogen needs to be combined with a more volatile fuel to avoid misfiring and ensure smooth combustion. Petroleum-derived diesel is often the secondary fuel used in most of the studies found in the literature. Although hydrogen-diesel operation can provide significant benefits in thermal efficiency and harmful emissions, the combination of the two fuels often leads to increased NOx emissions. The present research paper attempts to reduce the NOx emissions in a hydrogen fumigated dual-fuel engine by implementing a low-sulphur and aromatics fuel. The work investigates the effects of replacing diesel fuel with waste cooking oil biodiesel and operating the engine at higher EGR rates. The paper compares the diesel and biodiesel-hydrogen operation for different hydrogen energy share ratios, EGR rates and combustion timings at low and medium engine loads. The comparison study revealed that biodiesel-hydrogen combustion allowed operation with higher EGR rates without worsening of soot emissions. The operation at higher EGR rates led to significant NOx emission benefits of up to 64% while carbon monoxide and total hydrocarbons were also reduced. A drop in the brake thermal efficiency due to the lower energy content of biodiesel could also be eliminated at low and medium engine loads as the increased EGR rates resulted in closer to stoichiometric combustion. Advancing the combustion phasing could contribute to efficiency improvement for the biodiesel-hydrogen engine and comes with further reductions in soot, CO and THC emissions but moderates the NOx improvement levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper proposed a novel method for the production of biodiesel from soy sauce residue under supercritical carbon dioxide for the first time. The effect of several parameters, such as the size of raw material, reaction pressure, temperature, time, and methanol/oil molar ratio were carefully optimized by single-factor experiments. The results showed that the optimized parameters were particle size 60 meshes, reaction pressure 16 MPa, temperature 100 °C, time 180min and methanol/oil molar ratio 35:1. Under this optimal conditions, biodiesel yield is as high as 96.21%. Furthermore, in order to better understand the advantages of this process, the mechanism and result of this process were compared with existing technology. The findings of this paper demonstrated that the soy sauce residue which was commonly considered as a waste can be efficiently converted to biodiesel by this method. Graphical abstract Image Highlights • The raw material is an oil-rich residue rather than common vegetable oil resources. • The reaction conditions are mild under supercritical carbon dioxide system. • The highest biodiesel yield was achieved at 100 °C and 16 MPa after 180 min. • The possible reaction mechanism was proposed and compared with other processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Ultrasound multifrequency system can measure SoS and Att of pure oils and biofuels blends. • Equivalence for SoS and Att in vegetable oils with similar composition was disclosed. • Low concentration of contamination that can be assed with ultrasound technique. • The method accuracy and robustness were metrologically assessed. Abstract Whilst fossil fuels have been an industrial driver for many decades, environmental concerns related to global warming have driven the development of alternative energy sources, such as the generation of biodiesel from vegetable oils. For a biodiesel to be commercialised, it must meets property and quality requirements from International Standards. Most of these checks must be performed off-line, with significant costs in terms of shutdown time and testing. On the other hand, ultrasound measurement can provide an in-line monitoring tool to assess the advance of transesterification. Although this was highlighted in previous works, hitherto this has not been the subject of a detailed metrological approach to define the uncertainty associated with ultrasound techniques applied to biodiesel and related liquids. This paper presents such research and addresses measurement of two ultrasound parameters, Speed of Sound (SoS) and attenuation coefficient (Att), and their capability of assessing macroscopic characteristics of the biodiesel. The liquids tested were pure edible oils (vegetable, corn, and sunflower), castor oil, pure biodiesel (B100), as well as blends of biodiesel with common contaminants or by-products related to biodiesel transesterification. Details of the biodiesel manufactured were varied, using different stirring speeds of rotation (200 rpm and 550 rpm), temperatures (40 °C and 50 °C), and KOH catalyst concentrations (0.2% and 1.5%). Contaminants added to pure biodiesel were methanol (0.10% and 0.20%), glycerol (0.10% and 0.15%) and triglyceride (2%). The acoustic characteristics of these liquids were determined relative to water using a broadband through-transmission substitution method covering the frequency range 1–20 MHz. Normalized error analysis has been applied to assess the equivalence of experimental results, as well as to discriminate the detection sensitivity of the technique. From the measurements, all edible oils showed equivalent experimental values for SoS and Att over the usable frequency band 2 MHz to 18 MHz. In contrast, biodiesel produced from sunflower and different reaction routes led to SoS and Att which were statistically different over the same frequency range, reflecting the ability of ultrasound to monitor low-level contamination of different blends. Finally, the paper concludes that ultrasound shows promise as a means of assessing biodiesel quality and purity with sensitivity sufficient to discern contaminants in a proportion as low as 0.1% in mass for Att measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract For biodiesel production from waste cooking oils with high acid values, an inefficient esterification pretreatment is always conducted to convert free fatty acids (FFAs) before alkali-catalysed transesterification process. In this paper, phosphotungstic acid based poly(ionic liquid) was prepared to catalyse the esterification of palmitic acid with methanol while the required catalyst dosage was much lower than commercial Amberlyst-15. And the catalyst was characterized by 31P CP-MAS NMR, FTIR, SEM, XRF and TG. Among the three poly(ionic liquid)s prepared in this paper, phosphotungstic acid based poly(ionic liquid) was selected to be the most suitable catalyst for esterification because the catalyst could be reused for more than 5 times without significant deactivation. According to single factor analyses, the esterification yield could reach 91.6% after 8 h while the reaction temperature, methanol to acid molar ratio and catalyst dosage were 65 °C, 6 and 3% wt, respectively. Afterwards, palmitic acid was proposed to be first adsorbed on the catalyst before reacting with methanol. Finally, a palmitic acid adsorbed Eley-Rideal model was employed to analyse the reaction and the adsorption mechanism was assumed as well. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • A novel method was employed to support phosphotungstic acid based ionic liquid. • Phosphotungstic acid was mainly immobilized through stable chemical effects. • A high esterification yield of 91.6% was obtained under mild conditions. • The catalyst can be recovered conveniently and reused for more than 5 times. • Eley-Rideal model was employed to analyse the reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Biodiesel production was stimulated in Brazil by the National Program for Production and Use of Biodiesel. The program has two objectives: ensuring both production and domestic consumption of biodiesel; and promoting diversification of feedstock sources, social inclusion, and regional development by generating employment and income for small rural farmers. However, despite the great potential for diversification of oilseed raw materials, soybeans make up the majority of the raw material that feeds the Brazilian biodiesel supply chain. Soybeans have two advantages: meeting the domestic demand for biodiesel; and having the most competitive prices, compared to other raw materials. Soybeans also support the social aspect of the federal program, although productive arrangements with small farmers are concentrated in the South region of Brazil. This paper characterizes the "social soybean" production chain for biodiesel production in Brazil and describes some of the competitive drivers that explain how soybeans from small farmers have been established as the main feedstock source. The paper also describes some bottlenecks and suggests actions that might address them in order to contribute to increased competitiveness of soybeans from small farmers in biodiesel production in Brazil. Highlights • Biodiesel is meant to be an environmentally and socially appropriate substitute for diesel. • Brazil presents possibilities for diversification of the raw materials used in the biodiesel chain. • Soybeans are more competitive than other oilseeds in both big and small scales. • The PNPB was conceived as a social inclusion and regional development strategy. • Unfortunately, social inclusion is highly concentrated in the South region of Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • OPB has the potential to be utilized as sustainable feedstock for microbial oils production. • Microbial oil can be used for production of plethora of bioproduct via biochemical process. • Example of potential microbial oil biorefinery products are biodiesel and palm oil substitutes. • Biorefining of OPB to microbial oil can enhance the sustainability of palm oil industry. Abstract Biomass wastes from oil palm production have the potential to be converted into high value bioproducts. Oil palm biomass (OPB) includes empty fruit bunch, mesocarp fibre, palm shell kernel, oil palm fronds and trunks. The production of microbial oils from OPB can be achieved through biochemical routes comprising pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of OPB to produce fermentable sugars (OPB hydrolysates), followed by the cultivation of oleaginous microorganism on OPB hydrolysates. This paper reviews the methods and processes of producing microbial oils and biodiesel from OPB. This paper also presents conceptual microbial oil-based lignocellulosic biorefinery development within the palm oil industry, based on existing and not-yet-explored potential application of microbial oils. OPB-derived microbial oils are a promising non-food feedstock for the production of biodiesel and palm oil substitutes. Biorefining of OPB to microbial oils can be integrated with traditional palm oil processing operations to expand markets for food and oleochemicals. This integrated biorefinery has the potential to generate sustainable outcomes for the palm oil industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A series of niobium-incorporated MSU-X and SBA-16 mesoporous molecular sieves was synthesized under different templates, initial Si/Nb molar ratios or hydrothermal parameters. The catalytic activities of niobium-containing mesoporous materials in the acetalization of glycerol were investigated at the same time. This paper reports on the acetalization of glycerol in acetone to give solketal (4-hydroxymethyl-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane), an oxygenated compound useful as chemical and fuel additive for gasoline, diesel and biodiesel. The explored synthesis parameters strongly influence the niobium content and textural properties in studied materials and, subsequently, the catalytic activities. High conversions were achieved (∼90%), though water was present in the reaction system. The results show that niobium-containing materials are water tolerant, reusable catalysts for glycerol acetalization. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • A series of niobium-incorporated MSU-X and SBA-16 mesoporous molecular sieves were synthesized. • This paper reports on the acetalization of glycerol in acetone to give solketal. • High glycerol conversions were achieved (∼90%), though water was present in the reaction system. • Application of microwave radiation contributed to obtain higher conversion of glycerol. • The optimal conversion was obtained for the NbSBA-16 samples by using the microwave method of heating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The objective of this paper is to assess the impact on fuel saving and emission reduction of biodiesel for power generation, using a wide range of economic indicators. There are many benefits that countries, especially developing ones can gain from renewable fuels like biodiesel. Apart from the possibilities that opens for economic growth and development across the country, especially for rural communities; opportunities are available for independent power producers to generate power to off-grid users and local businesses. This is only achievable from engines and fuels with good economic performance. This paper analyse the impact of Callophyllum inophyllum (CI) biodiesel on the fuel saving and the carbon dioxide (CO 2) emission reduction, focusing on the application of CI biodiesel in two different systems, namely internal combustion engines in the transport sector and gas turbines in the power sector. The results showed that application of CI biodiesel in the power sector is able to have more significant savings in fuel and reduction in the CO 2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper presented experimental results to evaluate the optimization of production parameters through response surface methodology. These parameters significantly affected the yield of cottonseed oil methyl ester (COME). The input variables for the production of methyl ester from cottonseed oil were methanol/oil molar ratio, concentration of catalyst, temperature, and stirring speed. The response or output variable was the yield of methyl ester. The fatty acid methyl ester composition of COME (biodiesel) was obtained using a gas chromatography (GC) analyzer. BS EN 14103:2011 was the standard used to analyze the fatty acid methyl ester. The derived mathematical model was statistically accurate to predict the optimum value of COME. The optimized values to obtain a 98.3% yield of methyl ester were as follows: methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1, catalyst concentration of 0.97% (w/w), temperature of 63.8 °C, and speed of 797 rpm. The physicochemical properties of COME were measured in accordance with ASTM D6751. The friction and wear properties of COME and its blends with petroleum diesel were tested using a four-ball wear testing machine. The tribological characteristics of COME as a new biofuel were assessed. COME displayed good lubricity with a low coefficient of friction and wear scar diameter. The coefficient of friction of pure COME (COME100) was lower than that of pure petroleum diesel (DL100) and COME blends with petrol diesel (COME10, COME20, and COME50). The average coefficient of friction of COME 100 was lower than that of DL100, COME10, COME20, and COME50 by 28.06%, 19.49%, 7.49%, and 3.65%, respectively. The wear scar diameter of COME100 for the tested ball was lower than that of DL100, COME10, COME20, and COME50 by 47.6%, 33.3%, 32.1%, and 21.42%, respectively. The worn surfaces of the tested balls were examined by scanning electron microscopy, and the results were presented in this paper. Highlights • The response surface methodology was utilized to optimize the production process parameters. • The tribological characteristics of cottonseed oil methyl ester (COME) as a new biofuel were assessed. • Friction and wear were reduced with increased concentration of COME in the testing fuel. • The average coefficient of friction was reduced with increased concentration of COME in the testing fuel. • The wear scar diameter of worn surfaces was enhanced with the reduction of COME concentration in the testing fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

-->Graphical abstract Highlights • Conceptual design of a biorefinery, simulation and economic evaluation. • High-value biochemicals boost the profitability. • Novel esterification processes by heterogeneous catalysis and reactive extraction. • Pure glycerol co-product drops significantly the price of biodiesel. • Energy saving of 77% by pyrolysis using mechanical vapour recompression. Abstract The paper presents the conceptual design of a castor oil biorefinery. Castor oil contains over 90% ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic) triglyceride, a versatile functional molecule. Fatty methyl ricinoleic ester (FAMRE) is the key building block. This can be valorised as biodiesel, but more profitable is making biochemicals, namely high-value polyamides. The goal is the conceptual design, simulation and economic analysis of a biorefinery processing 80 ktpy castor oil, equally shared between biodiesel and biochemicals. The process synthesis work is based on research papers and patents, supported by simulation with Aspen Plus™. The biorefinery involves three plants: transesterification, pyrolysis and amination. Two innovative technologies are developed for transesterification, by heterogeneous catalysis in variable-time PFR and by homogeneous catalysis in reactive-extraction device. The reactors are simulated by employing detailed kinetics such that the ester composition fulfils the specifications set by the quality norms for biodiesel. Both methods result in compact and low energy processes, but the first delivers more valuable high-purity glycerol. FAMRE pyrolysis supplies heptanal, a valuable intermediate for specialities, and methyl undecenoate, converted further to ω-aminoundecanoic acid. Energy saving of 77% is achieved by employing mechanical vapour recompression. The amination is complex as chemistry and processing, involving aqueous solutions and solids. The economic analysis estimates capital costs and minimum product prices for 20% ROI. The performance and contribution of each process is highlighted. The bottleneck in design is the amination plant, capital-intensive and handling large amounts of process water. This stage makes necessary high equipment and energy costs but delivers a high-value monomer that boost the profitability. The result is that at equal throughput the biochemicals bring 2.5 times more revenues than biodiesel. By a synergy effect, high-value biochemicals sustain the profitability of commodity biodiesel, which in turn offers a broader market and secures stable revenues for farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Sustainable mats produced from degradable polyethersulfon (PES) nanofibers via electrospinning to immobilize heterogenous CaO catalysts. • Waste cooking oil collected from restaurants as potential resources for biodiesel production. • Successful transesterification of fresh canola and waste cooking oil using CaO-immobilized catalytic mats. • Environmental-friendly biodiesel production from cooking wastes to the use of degradable polymer as catalyst carriers — easily-separable and reusable catalysts. In this paper we describe the design, creation, and development of immobilizing calcium oxide (CaO) catalysts onto degradable polymeric mats for environmentally friendly biodiesel production. The polyethersulfone (PES) fiber mats was prepared by electrospinning technique, in which immobilized CaO particles were physically entrapped on the fibers. Immobilized and free-flowing CaO catalysts were later successfully used in the transesterification of fresh and waste canola oil into biodiesel. Entrapped CaO particles in the PES fibers were able to be re-used up to six times in the conversion of triglycerides from fresh canola oil into biodiesel, while transesterification process of waste oil was successfully repeated with immobilized CaO for four times. The use of electrospinning technique allows the creation of a degradable, easily separable and reusable catalysts, which provides a sustainable method for future transesterification reactions of waste oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The past few decades had seen a rapid hike in the world's population, which has caused an excessive use of fossils and, consequently, the diminution of fossil resources and the advent of global pollution problems. In this regard, the renewable and eco-friendly properties of biodiesel fuel provide an alternative to petroleum fuel. Many countries are looking into the use of biodiesel, particularly countries that are more susceptible to environmental problems. Biodiesel could be synthesized from different origins, including organic oils from animal fats and vegetables. At the same time, the production of biodiesel from vegetable edible oils can create food security problems; hence, the selection of cheap sources, like animal fats, is a valuable feedstock, but its availability is limited. Thus, more preferable sources other than low-cost feedstocks with high free fatty acids content include unrefined crude oils, discarded cooking oil and inedible oils. This paper is aimed to highlight biodiesel and its availability from various feedstock for its preparation. It also discussed how the ionic liquids (ILs) can be the catalysts to produce biodiesel; these liquids are sourced by different feedstocks by transesterification method. Due to several limitations and problems associated with traditional homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts in recent years, ILs are increasingly used as the catalysts or solvents for free fatty acids esterification, as well as the transesterification of vegetable oils. This paper is focused on the transesterification of fatty acid with ILs, cost and recycling of ILs, the effects of adding enzyme, Lewis acids and amines on ILs catalysed reaction, the use of Brønsted acidic, basic and dicationic basic ILs as the sole solvent which supported acid/base-catalysed IL for biodiesel synthesis. In addition, the proper research focuses and new developments in this regard would make the ILs as an ideal catalyst for biodiesel preparation from various feedstocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultivation of microalgae using wastewater has received considerable attention around the globe as a platform to remove inorganic nutrients from the wastewater and producing microalgae biomass for biodiesel production. This can be done by converting freely available nutrients from the wastewater (particularly nitrogen, N and phosphorus, P) into microalgae biomass with concomitant carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) sequestration via photosynthesis process. In fact, microalgae biodiesel could help to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the atmosphere through the replacement of fossil diesel as it is made from renewable resources. Despite the various benefits to produce microalgae biodiesel, a number of technical hurdles such as complex processes, requirement of high energy input during cultivation and dewatering (harvesting steps) need to be addressed for commercialization purpose. Besides, additional pre-treatment step is necessary to disrupt the microalgae cell wall to enhance lipid extraction efficiency. Hence, this paper is aims to reveal in-depth analysis and discussions on the process of microalgae-based wastewater treatment as well as microalgae cells disruption technology for lipid extraction. The paper also includes several new directions for technological improvements to improve commercialization potential of microalgae biodiesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an investigation and study of how combustion characteristics appear in constant volume combustion chamber(CVCC) when biodiesel is mixed with pure gasoline. Experimental data for this study included four gasoline biodiesel fuel mixtures with concentrations of biodiesel of 5 and 20 designated GB05 and GB20 respectively. The study involves studying the positive aspects of combustion efficiency because biodiesel contains an oxygenated fraction. Through this study, we can find the most effective and efficient substitute fuel by comparing the total fuel mixture. Through these paper, you can improve your knowledge of gasoline biodiesel blended fuels and then utilize alternative fuels in high combustion efficiency and environmentally friendly modern gasoline compression ignition engines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increases in biodiesel production have led to a surplus of crude glycerol, which represents a major bottleneck in the biodiesel production chain and has created new challenges to its sustainable use. Although there is a wide range of potential uses for crude glycerol, they are limited by its degree of purity, which affects its physical, chemical and biological properties. This paper presents a review and analysis of patents related to the use of glycerol in the period from 1993 to 2015, showing the quantity and diversity of work related to the search for alternatives to add value to glycerol. It was found that 85.7% of the filed patents fell into four categories of applications: 1) manufacture of chemical products; 2) production of polymer compounds; 3) production of biofuels and biogas; and 4) purification and use of glycerol. In this regard, the development of new technologies for the use of glycerol, without the need for traditional purification steps, are fundamental. This paper portrays the efforts that have been made in this direction and the obstacles that still have to be overcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapeseed is currently cultivated as an industrial crop in Latvia as a source of oil rich biomass to contribute to renewable energy goals of the European Union. However, rapeseed oil can also be used as a feedstock biobased polyurethane production. Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry have developed polyols based on rapeseed oil and have developed biobased and volatile organic compounds-free polyurethane coatings. The main aim of this study was to present a Life Cycle Inventory of spring and winter rapeseed produced in Northern European country Latvia based on primary data of agricultural practices used in this region. The study was carried in accordance with ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. Data were collected from a large crop company in Latvia to ensure a specific and accurate data collection for the definition of the complete supply chain. The reference unit of this study was defined as 1 ha, time horizon 2008–2016, stages from the raw materials production to the seed harvesting were considered. The data presented will add to and expand the existing knowledge of rapeseed production in other European countries. Lastly, this paper is the first in a series of papers that will result in a complete Life Cycle Assessment for these develop polyurethane coatings based on rapeseed oil polyols to avoid black box unit process and provide transparent results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a fast, simple and new alternative method for determination of water content (moisture) in biodiesel using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is developed. The method is based on the sensitive variation of the charge transfer resistance (R ct ) of the biodiesel medium in the presence of different quantities of water. To obtain an accurate analytical measurement, a pre-treatment based on a simple dilution by acetonitrile is employed. The two identical Pt electrodes are used in the measurement cell filled with sample solution. The experiment conditions are also optimized for the measurements. The obtained analytical linear curve between the water content and EIS impedance is the basis for the water content analysis in biodesiel fuel. The EIS method is then successfully applied to both real and certified samples, and the results confirm that the method is reliable with high sensitivity, precision and accuracy. The comparison of EIS method with the official standard method is also made through the Student test t, demonstrating that both methods are statistically consistent and similars. The validation of such an EIS method confirms that the method presented for the fist time in this paper can be succesessfully applied to determining the water content of biodiesel fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel is one of the ideal options, considering it is a renewable, biodegradable, non-toxic, environmentally friendly fuel with low pollutant emission. However, biodiesel encounters challenges, mostly connected to its high manufacturing costs, that hinder its continued development and advancement. Focusing on more affordable and environmentally friendly inputs, such as suitable and abundant feedstock and efficient catalysts, is crucial. This paper aims to summarize the literature on biodiesel production and life cycle assessment (LCA) studies, critically review the catalyst and oil feedstock employed, and the findings of the LCAs, focusing on spotting prospective low-cost feedstock sources. Furthermore, an overview of recent LCA-related works applied in various biodiesel processes incorporating various catalysts and oil feedstock was evaluated. The application of LCA and its environmental impacts in biodiesel production was discussed and summarised in table form. The importance of using a sustainable and favorable approach could result in cost-efficient biodiesel production. Additionally, the advantages and limitations of the LCA in biodiesel production have been discussed. Last, the status and challenges of LCA in biodiesel production are covered. The findings of using cheaper feedstock are expected to inspire future studies and help industry professionals develop sustainable biodiesel production. • A comprehensive review of LCA framework and biodiesel process technologies were covered. • LCA of biodiesel production using various catalysts and oil feedstock was reviewed. • Challenges and status were discussed for sustainable biodiesel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]