Search

This paper examines the relationship between oil companies and the governments of host nations in the Middle East as it is affected by the desire for fast economic development by host governments while at the same time having the need to assert their own sovereignty. The effects of Middle Eastern ideas on their oil policies are examined in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of Asian societies has not yet had its share of attention within the framework of comparative sociology as a whole. As one step towards remedying this situation, a one-day conference, called by the British Sociological Association, was held in London, England, at the School of Oriental and African Studies on December 2, 1961, to discuss the position of sociology in Asia. Papers dealing with India, China, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand and Indo-China and Burma were presented at the conference. Coverage was thus fairly comprehensive, though certain areas, including the whole of the Middle East, were left out on this occasion. The aim of speakers present at the conference was to assess the present state of knowledge about societies they were considering, with special reference firstly to sociologists of Asian nationality and secondly to the current contribution of British scholarship. Papers that were presented, while they showed wide variation in the state of sociology in different countries, also showed for Asia as a whole a volume of work being done which western sociologists could ill afford to ignore. Some criticism arose in the discussion of the idea of regional research entrees and of inter-disciplinary teams assembled for area studies. There was discussion also of the alleged problem of translating sociological concepts into Chinese or Japanese.

Copyright of Review of Income & Wealth is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Since the Arab-Israel war of 1967, military expenditure/GNP ratios for the participants in the conflict-Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Syria, and Iraq-have escalated to levels far surpassing those in other developing areas and even those of the superpowers locked in an extensive global arms race. In the Middle East, a region of low per capita income and not especially endowed with an abundance of natural resources, the costs incurred by military expendenditures are particularly severe. The purpose of the paper is to measure these costs. A simple variant of the Harrod-Domar model is employed to determine the military burden. Estimates are made for both the 1960-1970 and the 1970-1980 periods. A set of assumptions-none peculiar to the Middle East-is posited to describe the transfer of resources from military to civilian production in a hypothesized process of deescalation. The additions to civilian production provide the basis for the estimates of the economic sacrifice the Middle East populations incur in maintaining the abnormal levels of military expenditure[GNP ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the demographic implications of alternative peace settlements between Israel and her Arab neighbors. Two sets of demographic issues axe discussed: (1) variations in the types of territorial and implied population adjustments that may result from a peace settlement and (2) variations in demographic dynamics of Jewish and Arab populations over the next 30 years. Models based on a range of territorial and population alternatives (from minimum to maximum) illustrate the tradeoffs between territory and proportion Jewish and between population growth and the retention of a Jewish majority in Israel. Although there are many complicated issues involved in reaching a peace agreement in the Middle East, the analysis presented here reveals clearly that demographic issues are part of the context within which decisions have to be made and evaluation of trends undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the news flow from Middle East to Sweden in the fall of 1972. It states that the guessed average proportion in Swedish newspaper of its foreign news of the news hole is 20%. It mentions that the Sweddish news followed the assassination news of the Jordan's prime minister in Cairo, Egypt. It says that the national newspaper has dedicated 7% of its foreign news to the Middle East, but 12% during the assassination's week. Moreover, the assassination in the Middle East has caused the interest to be doubled or tripled.

Findings from a 1951 study in Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon are reported. The 1,200 interviews, conducted by trained nationals, do not represent a cross-section but include persons of varying educational and economic status, as well as of urban arid rural residence. Radio listening in rural areas was found to be a social activity, the number of listeners per set being high. News ranked high in program preferences, and somewhat higher in rural areas than in cities even among persons of low education. Most radio listeners also read newspapers and attended movies, at least occasionally. A little over half of the listeners heard at least one foreign broadcast a month, although there was considerable variation between countries in this respect. The B.B.C., which reached 86 per cent of the listeners, was by far the most popular broad- caster. About a quarter of the respondents heard United States programs, and an eighth listened to Russia. Fewer rural than urban listeners heard foreign broadcasts, although in Egypt and Syria the audience for American broadcasts tended to be rural. A special analysis of the data from Egypt indicated that people there consider matters relating to nationalism as the biggest problem facing them, and tend somewhat to overlook the problems of agriculture and natural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the relationship between H. Saint John Philby and the Zionist movement. According to the author, Philby was one of the Englishmen that had been suspected by the Zionist movement. The author observes that Zionists felt that men who were so devoted to the Arabs were bound to sympathize with the latter's feelings regarding Palestine and consequently take an antagonistic attitude to Zionism. Moreover, the author explores the involvement of Philby in a plan for solving the Jewish-Arab in 1929.

The article presents information on several books related to the Middle East. The book "The Middle East: A History," by Sidney N. Fisher, presents a comprehensive history of the area, its religion and national characteristics. The book "The Geographical Pattern of Iranian Oil Development," by Alexander Melamid, presents an account of the history of the exploitation of Iranian oil fields. The book "Islam and the Modern Middle East," by John S. Badeau, discusses what Islamic influences in the Middle East really are and how they are changing. The book "The Minorities in the Arab Orient Today," by Pierre Rondot, discusses the status and treatment of minority groups in the Middle East today. The book "Rural-to-Urban Migration in Iraq," by Doris G. Phillips, traces the pattern of migration to cities in Iraq. Much sociological material on village and city life is included in the book. The book "Investing and Licensing in the United Arab Republic," surveys organizing companies, transfer of earnings and capital, licensing, taxation, incentives, labor and import-export restrictions in the region.

Oil has changed the Middle East from a crossroads of trade between Europe and Asia into a market in its own right. This article examines some of the factors shaping the potential of this new market, and points out possible opportunities for the marketing man with the "right" product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a conceptual scheme for the political analysis of social and economic change. The author takes the Middle East as his case in point and his purpose is not only to improve reporting of the events but to bridge the gap between theory, reporting, and formulation of policy. He says that there are two general categories of social analyses, one category relates primarily to horizontal divisions between classes and the other category relates to groups of people within a given society. He emphasizes that political and economic programs can only be carried out in practice with a far greater degree of coordination and cooperation between the various agencies of the American government.

The article discusses the Euro-dollar market, particularly how it developed and became so important to the world economy. It is noted that it has become feasible to make long-term investments in the market when capitalists had previously used the market in only the short-term. It is believed that this has happened due to the oil industry that is located primarily in Middle Eastern countries, which have invested heavily in the Euro-dollar market. The possibility of a financial crisis that might force some capitalists to withdraw their investments in the market is considered.

The article presents a reference guide for Middle East. Names of publishers of books and the addresses of periodicals are provided to aid readers. Listings include only basic material, not news items or reports of transitory significance. "Who's Who in U.A.R. and the Near East" presents brief biographies of important people in U.A.R., the Sudan, Iran, Libya, Cyprus, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi-Arabia, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Indonesia, Ethiopia and Aden. "Middle East in Crisis: A Historical and Documentary Review," by Carol Ann Fisher and Fred Krinsky, reviews past and present trends, problems and policies concerning Middle East. "Middle East Perspective," by R.C. Mowat, is a survey of the events and ideas that have brought about the present situation. "The Determination of the Stock of Money and the Promotion of Economic Activities in Egypt," by Soghi F. Geraissa, is an abstract of a doctoral thesis completed at the University of Wisconsin in 1957. "Israel: Rebirth in an Antique Land," is a special section on Israel, covering her international relations, place in the Arab world, Zionism, newcomers, politics, financial problems, and over population.

Investigates the terms of trade in Midwestern States. Subjection of the agricultural sector to political and social upheaval; Economic position of the farmer; Competition between the agricultural and manufacturing industries.

The article presents details of published literature concerning the Middle East. The books include "The Islamic Near East," edited by Douglas Grant and "The History of Modern Iran," by Joseph M. Upton.

The article discusses international trading firms in the Middle East, specifically Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia). The article explores the relationship between size of firm and efficiency in questioning why the bulk of international trading firms in these countries remain small. European firms did not dominate international trade before the Second World War in the Middle East as in China, due to a lack of a major export commodity such as tea. The rapid extension of petroleum production in Persian Gulf principalities initiated large-scale development projects and rising personal incomes after the war.

The article presents several reports from the Central Committee of the World Council of Churches (WCC) for August 1967. The documents include the reports of the General Secretary and the Executive Committee to the Central Committee. The documents also include the statements of WCC regarding several issues including the conflict in the Middle East, the food gap and the passage of the Law on Religious Liberty in Spain.

The present study deals with the influence of reference groups on a student's decision to go to college and on other areas related to post-college expectations. This analysis describes a sample of women students at a private college in the Middle East. Basic conclusions are: 1) both parents are perceived by their daughters to play a very important role in the educational and occupational aspirations of their female children who go to college; 2) relatives including sisters and brothers are not perceived as a significant factor in providing direction for the college plans of students; 3) friends, teachers, and other adults are consistently overlooked as a source of guidance and support in reference to college plans; 4) the dominance of the family does not require a complete subordination of the individual; self-assertion is particularly noticeable in areas a direct concern to the student; and 5) the above patter remains the same when differences in socioeconomic and other social characteristics are considered. Theoretically, the continued reliance on the family as a primary group not permeated by the influence of secondary groups implies the solidarity of the nuclear family in the Middle Eastern society. Furthermore, membership in a group which has involved deep-seated attachments cannot be easily forgotten or destroyed. The result is very likely to be that of a great deal of dependence on family ties and bonds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study that investigates the drought resistance (DR) and water relations of plants in the Near East. It discusses DR problem among plants, suggests principal ways of balancing water to escape plants from death, and evaluates the effectiveness of equilibration of water. It states that the rhythm of plant life in the country reflects the regular interchange of a winter vegetation that adapted to the wet and cool conditions of the rainy season and a drought-resistant summer vegetation.

Examines whether agrarian reform can be an important factor in raising rural living standards and increasing employment in the Middle East. Analysis of the effects of employment and reform in raising farm incomes; Discussion on the benefits of investment planning in the Middle East, mainly in the form of irrigation works, in increasing employment as compared to the effects of agrarian reform.

In terms of quantitative comparative data Middle Eastern countries report systematically the lowest female participation rates in economic activities outside of agriculture. This behavior represents a deviation from the current experience of other developing nations and from the historical experience of the now-industrialized West. Using comparative data on female employment patterns in Latin American countries which are at roughly a similar stage of economic development, it is shown that the low level and particular character of women's involvement in the work force in the Middle East can be explained by institutional arrangements contingent upon aspects of social structure. Five countries are selected for intensive analysis: Chile, Mexico, Egypt, Morocco and Pakistan. One major aspect of social organization and its cultural adjuncts is emphasized: The interplay between the volitional avoidance by women of certain occupational sectors because of the social stigmatizing aspect and the prohibition of occupational opportunities imposed by males. The combined effects of this tradition of female seclusion and exclusion are confirmed by the detailed analysis of the structure of the non-agricultural labor force: Middle Eastern women are absent systematically from occupational and industrial sectors of employment which involve public activity and presuppose contact with males. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the trends in the components of population growth in the Arab countries of the Middle East. It is quite true that apart from the United Arab Republic, which has a long series of censuses, relatively good vital statistics, and a number of demographic surveys, most of the countries have only a little information to offer to the student of demography. Lebanon, one of the most developed of these countries, does not have even one modern census; and registration of births and deaths there is so deficient that published data are of very little use. The same is more or less true about registration in Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. Jordan and Syria are awaiting termination of the tabulation processes of their first modern censuses, but Iraq, with two censuses al- ready taken, is much richer in this respect. The city of Kuwait has more foreigners than Kuwaitis, with the latter numbering only 41 percent of the city's population. Judging from the rural-urban and occupational distributions of the population, Iraq is, like her neighbors, mainly rural.

The article presents information related to developments in the field of sociological research. The American University at Cairo, Egypt has announced the establishment, under a Ford Foundation grant, of a new Social Research Center. The objectives of the Center are: (1) to gather, appraise, and make available accurate and scientifically determined information about social conditions in Egypt and the adjacent Arab world; (2) to train Near East students in the techniques of social research; (3) to encourage, guide and assist social research scholars, both Near Eastern and foreign, in specific research projects. Two village studies are now in progress under the direction of American anthropologists with the assistance of Egyptian interviewers. The Center is interested in communicating with American graduate students and scholars interested in doing social research in the Middle East. Also, a local chapter of the American Association for Public Opinion Research has been organized in the District of Columbia. Its main purpose is the interchange of information on developments in opinion research.

The article focuses on the land use in the Near East. In Lebanon, one can see in a relatively circumscribed area a kind of recapitulation of several millennia of agricultural development, and practices which make use of the most modern as well as of age-old techniques. A caterpillar tractor is used to pull gang plows within a stone's throw of a farmer who is still driving oxen round an ancient threshing floor to trample out the grain, just as his forefathers did for ages past There are curious blends of primitive and modern techniques. At Zahle, in the Bequaa plain of Lebanon, the old threshing sleds were still in use on the threshing floors but they were pulled not by oxen but by a tractor. Farming of these mountain slopes is a perpetual battle against the elements. Unless infinite care is taken, the rain and snow storms of winter will remove every trace of soil, which can be held in place only by a complex system of terraces. Many mountain slopes are completely made over. For thousands of vertical feet, every horizontal field a yard wide has its equivalent yard or more of perpendicular wall. The entire mountainside has been so completely made over that it is hard to imagine what the original landscape was like. This is indeed a mature cultural landscape.

The article focuses on the self-delusion of politicians. It is very difficult matter to decide what really provoked men to delude themselves as to the public and secret foreign policies being battle proof. There are so many other considerations to deal with personal ambition, emolument, and that extraordinary trait, prejudice, which blinds a man when clear-sighted reason is absolutely necessary for estimating the strength of his opponent. It is one thing for diplomatists and politicians to delude themselves, but it is quite another thing for the taxpayers of the country to delude themselves about the way governments act in the interests of special groups. This cannot possibly be done without the profligate expenditure of a nation's resources. The problem Americans now face in the Middle East should never have arisen. It was foreshadowed before the First World War began. When the U.S. State Department sent politician Morgan Shuster to Persia to assist in straightening out the finances of that power, he unearthed a calamitous state of affairs. It was permitted to worsen and become more complicated, and has undoubtedly contributed much to present conditions in the Middle East, which now threaten a Third World War.

The article focuses on land use in the Near East. The simple cultivator of the soil is a victim of the conflicting claims, upon him and upon his land, of the State, of the Mosque, of the landlord, and of the money lender. The various claimants disagree among themselves as to the division to be made of the peasants' produce. The social, political and economic status of the proprietor of a given piece of land counts for far more than the actual juridical status. For instance, a certain piece of property occupied by a poor peasant might be classified as abandoned, whereas the government official will consider the same piece of land cultivated once it is securely in the hands of a powerful landlord. The procedures vary whereby the village common lands become property owned in fee simple by perhaps only one person. Some plots may be purchased outright, for cash, others may be seized for indebtedness, and still others may be occupied by force, on the part of a landlord, a powerful official, or a tribe of fierce nomads. The system of holding and working of land in common is a natural response on the part of a group of people intent on preserving their meal ticket by a show of cohesive strength in an area where the physical and social odds against survival have been great. It is significant that the village has been able to live on, no matter whether it was 'owned" by a government official or by a great landlord, by a money lender or by a Bedouin band.

The article discusses that when a government reserves to itself the right to act in its own interest in a crisis, it should not complain if an ally follows the same course. For an administration to adopt, as a guiding policy, the safeguarding of its domestic and foreign affairs may seem to be justifiable, when it is free to act without the consent of other States; but when it is restricted by agreements to act in concert with others upon particular violations that may arise, it becomes incumbent upon it to notify its allies of its intention to take action. In attempting to form a judgment of the rights and wrongs of political and military actions in these affairs, it is incumbent upon us to set aside national and party prejudices, and view the problems that arise from them impartially, if the consequence is fraught with signs of worse to come. The recent disturbance in the Middle East affords a unique instance of these very problems. To say they have been brewing since the bombardment of Alexandria and the battle of Omdurman may seem to those of this generation a far-fetched remark. But present disturbances of this order have long histories behind them that imperialists would forget or ignore. There were warnings enough to convince a free-thinking observer that the natives of the Nile and Arabian lands might wish to rule themselves, but such a notion was scouted by those who imagined backward peoples were in need of Christian guidance and would remain submissive to it.

The article focuses on the process of economic growth and distribution in the Middle East. Most likely there is not a precise relationship between the distributive pattern and the rate at which an economy is progressing. Yet there is a strong presumption that some degree of inequality in the distribution of wealth and income is necessary if there is to be an adequate flow of net investment. Traditional discussion concerning the need for the receipt, or at least the promise, of large returns as a pre-condition to the initiation of investment projects, invariably has concentrated attention on the connection between expected profits and capital formation. The post-war writings on underdeveloped countries attributed the existence of poverty and low productivity to a scarcity of capital, to the lack of an entrepreneurial class, and to institutional obstacles. It is extremely difficult to say with certainty why the landed class in underdeveloped areas seldom invest their savings in domestic enterprises. It is easier to point out the manner in which they do spend their "surplus" income.

The article discusses the efforts of U.S. officials to accommodate policy to the complexities of politics in Middle East during World War II. American Zionists aim to attain a Jewish majority under the British mandate and the establishment of an independent state. According to Rabbi Solomon Goldman, president of the Zionist Organization of America, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt contemplated the removal of two to three hundred thousand Arabs from Palestine into Iraq. Roosevelt once remarked that the United Nations would have to create a Jewish commonwealth if direct negotiations between Jews and Arabs failed.

The article reports on how Karl Marx characterizes the religious culture of the Middle East. Marx considered the religious culture as the age of realized unreason. However, it is stated that this argument lies the false belief of Marx's thought. Marx considered himself to be not based from the philosophical situation but from the fact that he was in demonic revolt against God.

The article discusses peace and armistice in the Near East. It states that peace in the Near East is important to the State of Israel, Arab people and to the Western countries. Peace can be achieve by negotiations, mutual compromise and agreement between Jews and Arabs. It mentions that the Jewish colonization in Palestine may become a very crucial factor in the development of Near east.

The article discusses a study on the interrelationships between nations such as the Middle Eastern situation in 1956. Using a mathematical theory of graphs, a psychological theory of structural balance of power is assessed. The study examined the approach and its relation to intrinsic factors such as alliance, cooperation and agreement. The systematic structural balance approach, as applicable in international relations, determines the strength of bonds between nations as it reaches a status quo.

The article explores ecological patterns and value orientations in Lebanon. This article presents two specific features, first, a method which has enjoyed some success in measuring certain ecological, demographic and valuational variables and second, data obtained by this method, in a study of Lebanese villagers, which show certain empirical relationships between ecological factors and social values. Rural Lebanon, particularly that part east of the coastal mountain range known as the Bekaa Valley, has much in common with other "underdeveloped" Middle East agricultural areas. This article offers an analysis of relationships between ecological changes suggested above and value orientations of the people undergoing those changes. This study has shown a marked tendency for value orientations to be positively related to such social factors as occupation, religion, rural-urban location and educational level. Differences between urban-type occupations and the rural agricultural occupations are significant for both analysis.

In this article, the author presents his views on the process of public opinion research. The author says that textbooks on public opinion research are sadly lacking in discussions of the proper technique for interviewing a king. Professional literature abounds with articles designed to prove that research methods grow more hygienic each day and theory more sophisticated. Feelings are easily bruised among Middle Eastern, as indeed among Western, scholars, and the author often faced the unpleasant task of telling a man with admirable academic credentials that he simply did not have the flair for making a good interviewer. Interestingly enough, some of the best people in the Jordan study were young doctors, lawyers, school teachers, and accountants. When set out to do studies in the Arabic world, some experts predicted that such a broad-scale public opinion survey could not be carried out because people would never admit our interviewers into their homes, much less answer the questions.

Assesses economic developments in the Middle East. Services of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; Evaluation of foreign aid; Construction of oil refinery.

The article focuses on the origin of agriculture and the changes in the environment in the Middle East. According to geomorphic and paleoecological studies, the Taurus-Zagros mountain arc between the Mesopotamian lowland and the Anatolian-Iranian Plateau, which is a principal focus of agricultural origins. It discusses the cultural sequence which led to the development of agriculture, which began around 11,000 years ago. It also presents pollen diagrams that depict the vegetational sequence that led to environmental changes.

Efforts have been made in many Middle Eastern countries to change the image of nursing and thus elevate its status as a profession. Among these attempts has been the effort to raise the educational level of nurses and concurrently the prestige which is accorded the profession, by establishing university schools of nursing. Middle Eastern cultures tend to place great value on those occupations which require higher education. Researchers found in a study of Iraqi students' perceptions of occupations that those vocations in which the workers were seen as engaging in manual labour were ranked at the bottom of the scale.

The article presents a commentary on the article "The Atomic Deadlock could be Broken," by E. M. Friedwald. The author comments that the world-wide alliance call of Friedwald through atomic development authority (ADA) is a misleading designation. He said that Friedwald is wrong in thinking that an authority set for the purpose of ADA would erect plants or accumulate bombs in Europe or in the Middle East.

The article reports that an underwater archaeology team from the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania has for several years been exploring the Eastern Mediterranean. During the summer of 1962, in a sunken Greek Ship of the first century B.C., they found an amphora containing microfilm of the library of Alexandria.