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William G. Hill, universally known as Bill Hill, died on December 17, 2021, aged 81. Bill also compared the observed and predicted long-term response to selection and concluded that these data had little power to distinguish among different models for quantitative genetic variation, including the "infinitesimal model" that postulates a very large number of loci with very small effects (Hill 2010). Appropriately, John Sved and Bill wrote an insightful I Perspective i in Genetics reviewing 100 years of work on LD (Sved and Hill 2018). In particular, he was the first to quantify the role of new mutations in producing the variability needed for long-term continued responses to selection, which are such a remarkable feature of many artificial selection experiments and animal and plant breeding programs (Hill 1982a,b; Keightley and Hill 1983). [Extracted from the article]

The genetics and evolution of complex traits, including quantitative traits and disease, have been hotly debated ever since Darwin. A century ago, a paper from R.A. Fisher reconciled Mendelian and biometrical genetics in a landmark contribution that is now accepted as the main foundation stone of the field of quantitative genetics. Here, we give our perspective on Fisher's 1918 paper in the context of how and why it is relevant in today's genome era. We mostly focus on human trait variation, in part because Fisher did so too, but the conclusions are general and extend to other natural populations, and to populations undergoing artificial selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heritability is a population parameter of importance in evolution, plant and animal breeding, and human medical genetics. It can be estimated using pedigree designs and, more recently, using relationships estimated from markers. We derive the sampling variance of the estimate of heritability for a wide range of experimental designs, assuming that estimation is by maximum likelihood and that the resemblance between relatives is solely due to additive genetic variation. We show that well-known results for balanced designs are special cases of a more general unified framework. For pedigree designs, the sampling variance is inversely proportional to the variance of relationship in the pedigree and it is proportional to 1/N, whereas for population samples it is approximately proportional to 1/N², where N is the sample size. Variation in relatedness is a key parameter in the quantification of the sampling variance of heritability. Consequently, the sampling variance is high for populations with large recent effective population size (e.g., humans) because this causes low variation in relationship. However, even using human population samples, low sampling variance is possible with high N. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the use of logistic regression to map quantitative trait loci (QTL) effects in livestock species. Estimates of QTL allele effects, normal error and truncation selection; Use of selective genotyping to detect and locate QTL; Absence of recombination between the genotyped locus and the locus affecting the quantitative trait.

The use of dense SNPs to predict the genetic value of an individual for a complex trait is often referred to as "genomic selection" in livestock and crops, but is also relevant to human genetics to predict, for example, complex genetic disease risk. The accuracy of prediction depends on the strength of linkage disequilibrium (LD) between SNPs and causal mutations. If sequence data were used instead of dense SNPs, accuracy should increase because causal mutations are present, but demographic history and long-term negative selection also influence accuracy. We therefore evaluated genomic prediction, using simulated sequence in two contrasting populations: one reducing from an ancestrally large effective population size (Ne) to a small one, with high LD common in domestic livestock, while the second had a large constant-sized Ne with low LD similar to that in some human or outbred plant populations. There were two scenarios in each population; causal variants were either neutral or under long-term negative selection. For large Ne, sequence data led to a 22% increase in accuracy relative to ~600K SNP chip data with a Bayesian analysis and a more modest advantage with a BLUP analysis. This advantage increased when causal variants were influenced by negative selection, and accuracy persisted when 10 generations separated reference and validation populations. However, in the reducing Ne population, there was little advantage for sequence even with negative selection. This study demonstrates the joint influence of demography and selection on accuracy of prediction and improves our understanding of how best to exploit sequence for genomic prediction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inbreeding depression, which refers to reduced fitness among offspring of related parents, has traditionally been studied using pedigrees. In practice, pedigree information is difficult to obtain, potentially unreliable, and rarely assessed for inbreeding arising from common ancestors who lived more than a few generations ago. Recently, there has been excitement about using SNP data to estimate inbreeding (F) arising from distant common ancestors in apparently "outbred" populations. Statistical power to detect inbreeding depression using SNP data depends on the actual variation in inbreeding in a population, the accuracy of detecting that with marker data, the effect size, and the sample size. No one has yet investigated what variation in F is expected in SNP data as a function of population size, and it is unclear which estimate of F is optimal for detecting inbreeding depression. In the present study, we use theory, simulated genetic data, and real genetic data to find the optimal estimate of F, to quantify the likely variation in F in populations of various sizes, and to estimate the power to detect inbreeding depression. We find that F estimated from runs of homozygosity (Froh), which reflects shared ancestry of genetic haplotypes, retains variation in even large populations (e.g., SD = 0.5% when Ne = 10,000) and is likely to be the most powerful method of detecting inbreeding effects from among several alternative estimates of F. However, large samples (e.g., 12,000-65,000) will be required to detect inbreeding depression for likely effect sizes, and so studies using Froh to date have probably been underpowered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this Review, we focus on the similarity of the concepts underlying prediction of estimated breeding values (EBVs) in livestock and polygenic risk scores (PRS) in humans. Our research spans both fields and so we recognize factors that are very obvious for those in one field, but less so for those in the other. Differences in family size between species is the wedge that drives the different viewpoints and approaches. Large family size achievable in nonhuman species accompanied by selection generates a smaller effective population size, increased linkage disequilibrium and a higher average genetic relationship between individuals within a population. In human genetic analyses, we select individuals unrelated in the classical sense (coefficient of relationship ,0.05) to estimate heritability captured by common SNPs. In livestock data, all animals within a breed are to some extent "related," and so it is not possible to select unrelated individuals and retain a data set of sufficient size to analyze. These differences directly or indirectly impact the way data analyses are undertaken. In livestock, genetic segregation variance exposed through samplings of parental genomes within families is directly observable and taken for granted. In humans, this genomic variation is under-recognized for its contribution to variation in polygenic risk of common disease, in both those with and without family history of disease. We explore the equation that predicts the expected proportion of variance explained using PRS, and quantify how GWAS sample size is the key factor for maximizing accuracy of prediction in both humans and livestock. Last, we bring together the concepts discussed to address some frequently asked questions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Atherosclerosis is characterized by the abundant infiltration of myeloid cells starting at early stages of disease. Myeloid cells are key players in vascular immunity during atherogenesis. However, the subsets of vascular myeloid cells have eluded resolution due to shared marker expression and atypical heterogeneity in vascular tissues. We applied the high-dimensionality of mass cytometry to the study of myeloid cell subsets in atherosclerosis. Methods and results Apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE−/−) mice were fed a chow or a high fat (western) diet for 12 weeks. Single-cell aortic preparations were probed with a panel of 35 metal-conjugated antibodies using cytometry by time of flight (CyTOF). Clustering of marker expression on live CD45+ cells from the aortas of ApoE−/− mice identified 13 broad populations of leucocytes. Monocyte, macrophage, type 1 and type 2 conventional dendritic cell (cDC1 and cDC2), plasmacytoid dendritic cell (pDC), neutrophil, eosinophil, B cell, CD4+ and CD8+ T cell, γδ T cell, natural killer (NK) cell, and innate lymphoid cell (ILC) populations accounted for approximately 95% of the live CD45+ aortic cells. Automated clustering algorithms applied to the Lin-CD11blo-hi cells revealed 20 clusters of myeloid cells. Comparison between chow and high fat fed animals revealed increases in monocytes (both Ly6C+ and Ly6C−), pDC, and a CD11c+ macrophage subset with high fat feeding. Concomitantly, the proportions of CD206+ CD169+ subsets of macrophages were significantly reduced as were cDC2. Conclusions A CyTOF-based comprehensive mapping of the immune cell subsets within atherosclerotic aortas from ApoE−/− mice offers tools for myeloid cell discrimination within the vascular compartment and it reveals that high fat feeding skews the myeloid cell repertoire toward inflammatory monocyte-macrophage populations rather than resident macrophage phenotypes and cDC2 during atherogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Orthologous positions of 55 genes associated with height in four human populations were located on the bovine genome. Single nucleotide polymorphisms close to eight of these genes were significantly associated with stature in cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus). This suggests that these genes may contribute to controlling stature across mammalian species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]