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When the Government of British Columbia (BC) introduced the Community Forest Agreement Program in 1998, it permitted a range of governance structures to allow flexibility and to learn which structures might be most appropriate for this new form of forest tenure. One structure that became fairly common was collaboration between Indigenous and non- Indigenous communities. This paper characterizes and analyzes the advantages of this collaborative governance model in three ways, identifying (1) what benefits this model entails, (2) how these are illustrated in three different community forests, and (3) how these forms of collaboration fit into a co-management spectrum. Because some of these benefits involve communities having greater degrees of power in forest governance, the model invites a consideration of the types of decision-making power experienced by Indigenous communities partnering or collaborating in BC community forests, as well as the types and range of benefits for all parties emerging from these collaborations. Fourteen indicators of the benefits of collaboration are identified, building on the discovery of five new benefits heretofore unrecognized in the literature. These understandings permit a more nuanced assessment of this particular type of co-management, leading to the generation of three new, broader hypotheses regarding the conditions that support co-management. Key words: community forests, co-management, Indigenous collaboration. Lorsque le gouvernement de la Colombie-Britannique (C.-B.) a mis sur pied le programme des ententes sur les forets communautaires en 1998, elle a accepte une variete de structures de gouvernance pour laisser de la flexibility et savoir quelles structures pourraient etre les plus appropriees pour cette nouvelle forme de tenure forestiere. La collaboration entre communautes autochtones et non autochtones est devenue une structure assez commune. Cet article caracterise et analyse les avantages de ce modele de gouvernance collaborative de trois facons, en identifiant (1) les benefices que comporte ce modele, (2) de quelle facon ces benefices sont illustres dans trois communautes forestieres distinctes, et (3) de quelle faon ces formes de collaboration s'integrent dans l'eventail de la cogestion. Etant donne que certains de ces benefices impliquent que des communautes ayant d'un plus grand degre de pouvoir dans la gouvernance forestiere, le modele incite a tenir compte des types de pouvoir de prise de decision que connaissent les communautes autochtones qui sont partenaires ou collaborent dans les communautes forestieres en C.-B., ainsi que des types et de l'eventail des benefices qui emergent de ces collaborations pour toutes les parties. Quatorze indicateurs des benefices de la collaboration sont identifies en comptant sur la decouverte de cinq nouveaux benefices jusqu'ici non reconnus dans la litterature. Cette comprehension permet d'obtenir une evaluation plus nuancee de ce type particulier de cogestion, laquelle debouche sur la formulation de trois nouvelles hypotheses avec une portee plus large au sujet des conditions qui supportent la cogestion. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles: forets communautaires, cogestion, collaboration avec les autochtones., Introduction The concept of community forestry first developed in British Columbia (BC) when Chief Justice Gordon Sloan recommended in his 1945 Royal Commission Report that municipalities manage local forests, a [...]

An interdisciplinary team of academics and representatives of fishing fleets and government collaborated to study the emerging requirements for sustainability in Canada's fisheries. Fisheries assessment and management has focused on biological productivity with insufficient consideration of social (including cultural), economic, and institutional (governance) aspects. Further, there has been little discussion or formal evaluation of the effectiveness of fisheries management. The team of over 50 people (i) identified a comprehensive set of management objectives for a sustainable fishery system based on Canadian policy statements, (ii) combined objectives into an operational framework with relevant performance indicators for use in management planning, and (iii) undertook case studies that investigated some social, economic, and governance aspects in greater detail. The resulting framework extends the suite of widely accepted ecological aspects (productivity and trophic structure, biodiversity, and habitat-ecosystem integrity) to include comparable economic (viability and prosperity, sustainable livelihoods, distribution of access and benefits, regional-community benefits), social (health and well-being, sustainable communities, ethical fisheries), and institutional (legal obligations, good governance structure, effective decision-making) aspects of sustainability. This work provides a practical framework for implementation of a comprehensive approach to sustainability in Canadian fisheries. The project also demonstrates the value of co-construction of collaborative research and co-production of knowledge that combines and builds on the strengths of academics, industry, and government. Une equipe interdisciplinaire d'universitaires et de representants gouvernementaux et de flottes de peche a collabore a l'etude des nouvelles exigences en matiere de perennite des ressources halieutiques canadiennes. L'evaluation et la gestion de ces ressources ont mis l'accent sur la productivite biologique en ne tenant pas suffisamment compte d'aspects sociaux (y compris des aspects culturels), economiques et institutionnels (de gouvernance). L'efficacite de la gestion des peches a en outre fait l'objet de tres peu de discussions ou d'evaluations formelles. L'equipe composee de plus de 50 membres a (i) cerne un ensemble exhaustif d'objectifs de gestion pour un systeme de peches perenne reposant sur des enonces de principes canadiens, (ii) regroupe ces objectifs en un cadre operationnel comptant des indicateurs de rendement pertinents a utiliser dans la planification de la gestion et (iii) realise des etudes de cas pour examiner plus en detail certains aspects sociaux, economiques et de gouvernance. Le cadre en decoulant elargit l'ensemble des aspects ecologiques (productivite et structure trophique, biodiversite et integrite des habitats et ecosystemes) largement acceptes pour y inclure des aspects economiques (viabilite et prosperite, moyens de subsistance durables, repartition de l'acces et des benefices, avantages pour les regions-collectivites), sociaux (sante et bien-etre, collectivites durables, peches ethiques) et institutionnels (obligations legales, structure de bonne gouvernance, processus decisionnel efficace) comparables de la perennite. Ces travaux fournissent un cadre pratique pour la mise en oeuvre d'une approche integree visant la perennite des ressources halieutiques canadiennes. Le projet demontre egalement la valeur de la construction collective de recherches collaboratives et de la production collective de connaissances qui mettent en commun les forces des universitaires, de l'industrie et des gouvernements. [Traduit par la Redaction], Introduction Canada's legislation and international commitments require attention to ecological, social (including cultural), economic, and institutional (governance) aspects of fisheries. The Federal Sustainable Development Strategy (ECCC 2016), which, along with [...]

There is widespread debate about the best strategies to provide local benefits in forest management. We evaluate recent policy changes in British Columbia, Canada, focussing on attempts to create local benefits from public forests through a community forestry program and broad policy changes in 2003 that removed obligations of tenure holders to process timber in areas near where timber was harvested. These obligations were intended to retain benefits of milling jobs locally and were considered part of a 'social contract'. We evaluate these policy changes by asking two specific questions. (1) Do community forest tenures provide more local benefits than major industrial tenures? (2) How have the policy changes of 2003 affected the patterns of fibre flow over the period to 2008? We evaluate these questions through qualitative research and a quantitative fibre flow analysis using a large time-series dataset. Community forests as a group performed better than major industrial tenures in delivering local benefits as we defined them. However, large variation among individual community forests is evident, highlighting the disparate strategies used by communities to promote local benefits. Our fibre flow analysis did not reveal major changes following 2003, suggesting that broader fibre flow trends mask more local perturbations. Key words: community-based forest management, fibre flow analysis, British Columbia, forest ownership, mixed methods. Un large debat entoure la question de la meilleure strategie a appliquer pour que l'amenagement forestier genere des benefices locaux. Nous avons evalue des changements recents a la politique forestiere de la Colombie-Britannique, au Canada, qui mettent l'emphase sur les tentatives visant a procurer des benefices locaux par l'instauration d'un programme de foresterie communautaire et qui, de facon plus generale depuis 2003, abrogent l'obligation des detenteurs de tenure industrielle de transformer les grumes a proximite du lieu oU elles ont ete recoltees. Cette derniere obligation visait le maintien d'emplois manufacturiers localement et constituait une sorte de << contrat social >>. Nous considerons ces changements de politique par le biais de deux questions specifiques. (1) Est-ce que les modes de tenure communautaire engendrent plus de benefices locaux que les grands modes de tenure industrielle? (2) Comment les amendements de 2003 ont-ils affecte les patrons d'approvisionnement en fibre des usines jusqu'en 2008? Nous abordons ce questionnement a l'aide d'une recherche qualitative menee de pair avec une analyse quantitative des flux de fibre utilisant des series temporelles tirees d'une importante base de donnees. Les forets communautaires, en tant que groupe, ont connu de meilleures performances que les grands modes de tenure industrielle au plan des benefices locaux tels que nous les avons definis. Toutefois, nous constatons une importante variabilite parmi les differentes forets communautaires etudiees. Cela met en evidence la disparite des strategies employees par les communautes afin de promouvoir les retombees locales. L'analyse des flux de fibre ne revele pas de changements majeurs apres 2003. Cela indique que les grandes tendances quant aux flux d'approvisionnement en fibre masquent les perturbations plus locales. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : gestion forestiere communautaire, analyse des flux de fibre, Colombie-Britannique, propriete forestiere, methodes d'analyse mixte., Introduction There is an ongoing debate around the world about the most sustainable strategy for managing common pool resources (Ostrom et al. 2007). To achieve sustainability, academics, governments, and other [...]

In many cases the management of certain common property natural resources has been successfully shared between government agencies and groups claiming co-management rights. This analysis adds to existing middle-range theoretical propositions about how such co-management arrangements develop, and specifically how groups overcome barriers to co-management when their co-management rights are protected in law but resisted politically. The paper examines a range of strategies used successfully by a coalition of environmental groups and Indian tribes with rights to participate in fish and wildlife habitat protection in the state of Washington. Their struggle first to procure co-management agreements and then to have the agreements implemented has implications for the theory and practice of joint management of other common property resources, especially where multiple agencies and parties are involved. Key words: co-management, fisheries, forests, wildlife, environmental protection, common property theory, issue networks, Five strategies successfully used by American Indian tribes and government and environmentalist groups in co-managing the protection of fish and wildlife habitat in Washington state are discussed. Issue networks/alliances, legislation and threatened legislative amendments, threat of greater regulation and public review, court action and threat of court action to reform laws and amend regulations and moves to prevent conversion of forest land to real estate are employed to bring the logging industry to the negotiating table and to encourage implementation at various stages.

This introduction to the special feature describes the development and application of a "full-spectrum sustainability" evaluation framework that emerged from a transdisciplinary research process. The framework and corresponding case studies described in this paper originated in the work of a Canadian Fisheries Research Network project that sought to enhance fisheries management by including diverse social-ecological considerations in fisheries management evaluation. The first section discusses the tendency of sustainability evaluation frameworks in fisheries to focus on ecological and economic considerations and introduces the Canadian Fisheries Research Network's four pillar approach, which includes ecological, economic, social and cultural, and institutional/ governance categories. To illustrate the comprehensive nature of this framework, the second section provides a comparison of the framework with elements in the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals. The third section provides an overview of the eight papers in this special feature that explore the development and application of full-spectrum sustainability. The conclusion synthesizes some key findings, highlighting four overall critical and ongoing challenges associated with advancing full-spectrum sustainability evaluation in Canada and elsewhere: the politics of transdisciplinary research; integrating social considerations into management agencies reluctant to move beyond ecological and economic considerations; dynamic and diverse issues involved in supporting robust and inclusive governance processes; and translating technical frameworks into usable practical instruments for different societal actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The economically and culturally important Pacific halibut fishery in British Columbia, Canada, managed as an individual transferable quota fishery since 1993, has frequently been held up as an example of management best practices. This narrative of success has continued despite repeated warnings that there are serious problems with the fishery, including processors exerting ever greater control over the fishery, contrary to stated fisheries objectives. Administrative data from federal and provincial data sets were used to consider ownership and control in the halibut fishery, with a focus on processor quota ownership, leasing, and brokerage of leases. The analysis indicated that direct processor ownership of halibut quota, while more than doubling between 1996 and 2016, remains relatively low at less than 10% of the available quota. Processor control through the leasing of halibut, however, is much higher, accounting for more than half of all halibut quota transfers in 2016. Through strategies such as "holding licences," processors increasingly act as hubs for leasing activity, which has shifted the balance of power in the fishery. This analysis (a) reveals that there is much more processor control than is obvious from a cursory review of ownership, (b) highlights approaches for assessing the level of processor control, and (c) recommends alternative government procedures for improving transparency and evaluating full spectrum outcomes of fisheries management such as equitable distribution of benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reintroduction of a previously extirpated predator can engender conflict when the reintroduced species depletes customary fisheries to which indigenous communities have constitutionally protected rights. In the case of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) recovery on the west coast of North America, not only is Canada's Species at Risk Act in conflict with Indigenous rights, but it also illuminates gaps in the principles of ecosystem-based management (EBM), such as equity and social justice. Broadly, we ask in this paper how EBM might be advanced if Indigenous communities were viewed as components of ecosystems having rights to a sustainable future equal to other components. Specifically, we explore evidence of sea otter management among precontact Northwest Coast societies and a contemporary co-managed system proposed by the Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations that would combine research with refinement of traditional hunting practices. We show that barriers persist through lack of knowledge of past controlled hunts, ignorance of recent experiences of successful community-based clam management, distrust of Indigenous capacity to self-manage or co-manage a hunt, and divergent values among actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many fisheries managers and neoliberal fisheries economists promote Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) as a solution to the race for fish which can cause rent dissipation under competitive quota or open access fisheries. These actors consider the Canadian Pacific halibut ITQ fishery an example of successful achievement of these objectives. However, critics note the weak performance of this management model in distribution of benefits, increased capital costs to fishermen, deteriorating safety conditions, reductions in crew income and barriers to entry. They point to the layup system which successfully managed effort in the Pacific halibut fishery for four decades prior to the introduction of ITQs. A system similar to the layup has been used for Atlantic halibut since 2013, initiated by the Fish Food and Allied Workers (FFAW) representing owner‐operator license holders in the halibut fishery off the coast of western Newfoundland and southern Labrador. The FFAW rejected the two halibut management plan options presented to them by Fisheries and Oceans Canada: the status quo (a competitive 12‐hr "derby" fishery) or IQs, likely leading to ITQs. Instead, the FFAW worked with license holders to develop a management plan that required harvesters to choose between different fishing periods that spread fishing opportunities over time. This approach improved conservation results, delivered strong economic returns, distributed benefits widely to active fishermen, and allowed an even flow into the market. The authors consider the advantages of these Canadian east and west coast halibut co‐management systems and their broader application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Fisheries sustainability is recognized to have four pillars: ecological, economic, social (including cultural) and institutional (or governance). Although international agreements, and legislation in many jurisdictions, call for implementation of all four pillars of sustainability, the social, economic and institutional aspects (i.e., the “human dimensions”) have not been comprehensively and collectively addressed to date. This study describes a framework for comprehensive fisheries evaluation developed by the Canadian Fisheries Research Network (CFRN) that articulates the full spectrum of ecological, economic, social and institutional objectives required under international agreements, together with candidate performance indicators for sustainable fisheries. The CFRN framework is aimed at practical fisheries evaluation and management and has a relatively balanced distribution of elements across the four pillars of sustainability relative to 10 alternative management decision support tools and indicator scorecards, which are heavily focused on ecological and economic aspects. The CFRN framework has five immediate uses: (a) It can serve as a logic frame for defining management objectives; (b) it can be used to define alternate management options to achieve given objectives; (c) it can serve as a tool for comparing management scenarios/options in decision support frameworks; (d) it can be employed to create a report card for comprehensive fisheries management evaluation; and (e) it is a tool for practical implementation of an integrated social–ecological system approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are the primary causes of increases in biosphere-scale toxicity, climatic variation, and risk. Despite several generations of intensive and scientifically astute environmental advocacy, research, and training it is unclear whether these trends will provoke self-perpetuating and out-spiraling conflicts or unprecedented levels of effective cooperation. For educators, a pivotal question is whether our schools, classrooms and curricula will produce the problem solvers required to meet escalating challenges in resource and environmental management. One of our responses to this question is a course that uses groupwork to simulate aspects of 'real world' complexity in resource management. The course, taught to over 300 graduate students in Simon Fraser University's School of Resource and Environmental Management, effectively trains learners in the acquisition and application of conceptual and practical knowledge and skills centered on cooperation among individuals and groups with diverse values and interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the literature on property rights, there is general consensus framed by people such as Boserup and Demsetz that common property regimes will change to private property regimes when resources are scarce and population increases. This is mostly correct where land tenure is concerned. However, there are many cases where common property regimes continue even though the population has grown and resources have become scarcer. Ocean areas are almost always held as common property. This article analyzes property regimes that develop for land and ocean and the conditions under which they do so. The analysis is based on worldwide ethnographic case studies. I argue that the form property regimes take is determined by economic defendability. Many variables influence economic defendability, ranging from technical change and physical attributes of the resource to government action and cultural factors. That arable land is usually held privately suggests this solution is adaptive for land with high economic defendability. However, the fact that many ocean areas, forests, pastures, and swidden lands are held as common property suggests that this type of tenure may be an optimal solution when the value of resources are low relative to defense costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Techniques for quantifying equity, which are discussed in the companion articles by the authors, "Quantifying Equity with Messrs. Markov, Lorenz and Gini: Retaining and distributing benefits in natural resource-dependent communities", and "Social network analysis, Markov Chains and input-output models: Combining tools to map and measure the circulation of currency in small economies", in this issue of JRCD, are applied by the primary author in a case study of Dunster, British Columbia, a small rural community heavily dependent on forestry revenue. The community has forestry tenure rights over a small area in the Robson Valley area of British Columbia, but as of 2011 had not yet begun logging. The application of the techniques highlight the challenges faced by small communities with limited industrial capacity in attempts to capture benefits from the extraction of natural resources. By establishing a "pre-logging" standard, the community can measure progress towards distributing the benefits of natural resource extraction equitably within the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Localization is posited as the antidote for globalization, but little exists in the way of quantifying the micro-scale of small communities. In this paper, the reader's attention is drawn towards understanding that social network analysis, Markov chains and input-output models are equivalent, and that together these tools can be used to map and measure the circulation of currency in a small community. The "map" of the economy can be created using social network analysis, in a form equivalent to Markov chains and input-output models, by representing businesses as nodes and the percentage of expenses spent by one business at another as the strength of the edges between the nodes. Markov chain mathematics is used to measure the circulation of currency in the economy by calculating the average number of transactions (average path length) from where the dollar enters the community until it leaves. This method is equivalent to the multiplier effect from input-output models but more granular. An example using a simple loop is provided showing different methods of solutions, their equivalence and the impact of loops on the average number of transactions in a small economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a modified version of the Gini coefficient and social network-based Markov chains are combined to quantify the distribution of benefits in natural resource-dependent communities. This distribution includes both the width and the depth of the circulation of economic benefits from resource extraction. The modified Gini coefficient is used to calculate the share of benefits each party receives (width) while the social network analysis-based Markov chains are used to map the local economy and calculate the average number of times a dollar circulates in that economy (depth). These two values are combined to create an "equity" factor that considers localization and other financial benefits to the community. This combination allows resource managers to optimize resource access based on quantified values other than highest bid/lowest cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is compelling evidence that participatory governance is crucial for contending with complex problems of managing for multiple values and outcomes to achieve ecological sustainability and economic development. Canada's Oceans Act, and federal oceans policy provide a strong basis for the participatory governance and community-based management of coastal and large ocean resources. The implementation of the Oceans Act and oceans policy has resulted in some steps toward participatory governance but has not adequately provided the mechanisms for a strong role for communities in integrated coastal and ocean management (ICOM). In order to strengthen and develop community participation in ICOM, nine initiatives are recommended: (1) shifting paradigms, (2) overcoming ‘turf protection,’ (3) ensuring compatibility of goals, (4) ensuring sufficiency of information, (5) dealing with internal community stratification, (6) creating cross-scale linkages, (7) creating a participatory policy environment, (8) building community capacity, and (9) monitoring and assessment of local-level initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystem stewardship is an action-oriented framework intended to foster social-ecological sustainability of a rapidly changing planet. Recent developments identify three strategies that make optimal use of current understanding in an environment of inevitable uncertainty and abrupt change: reducing the magnitude of, and exposure and sensitivity to, known stresses; focusing on proactive policies that shape change; and avoiding or escaping unsustainable social-ecological traps. All social-ecological systems are vulnerable to recent and projected changes but have sources of adaptive capacity and resilience that can sustain ecosystem services and human well-being through active ecosystem stewardship.

Analyzes a planning body of commercial, sport, and aboriginal fishing communities in northern British Columbia, including federal and provincial agencies, in terms of its capacity to deal with three major fisheries conflicts: maximum yield versus stock diversity, commercial versus sport allocations, and implementing aboriginal rights. The comanagement literature points to five conflict resolution mechanisms that have been successful because they address larger power and sustainability issues. The Skeena Watershed Committee successfully used three of these mechanisms during 1992-94: 1) tapping the creativity and knowledge of local decisionmakers, 2) creating a large enough context for decisions and shared projects to find common ground, and 3) using a mediator skilled in group process. The committee has only partially or imperfectly used two other mechanisms: 4) producing and sharing information about the resource status, management models, and research results, and 5) clearly defining mandates, responsibilities, and power relations. Problems in the process appear to be linked to the two processes incompletely used so far, and outcomes could be positive if these processes receive greater attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]