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International audience; This research investigates the determinants of ship turnaround times at about 2,300 container ports between 1977 and 2016, based on nearly 3 million daily vessel movements. It adopts a multilevel approach combining territorial and network indicators to characterize ports, and proposes a new methodology calculating shipping delays. Main results reveal that port connectivity, Gross Domestic Product per capita, the number of vessel calls, and island location foster efficient port operations. Conversely, urban population, voyage delays at sea, maximum ship size, and upstream location increase turnaround time. While average turnaround time and inter-port sailing time have both regularly declined, operational and technological changes in the ports and maritime sector-especially after the 2007/8 global financial crisis-accelerated intra-port time and slowed down inter-port time. This relational and spatial approach also underlines the geographic differentiation of ship times nationally and regionally, as it is far from being randomly distributed on the globe.

In 1870, Italy acquired its first colonial holding through the purchase of the Port of Assab in today’s Eritrea. This acquisition was not the purview of the newly formed Italian state, but through the motivations of an Italian citizen to claim land on the African continent before there was “no land left to colonize.” What follows is a decades-long colonization process that slowly occupies Eritrea, Somalia, and for a time Ethiopia, in the Horn of Africa. This history, an understudied colonial story, is further ignored by pushing the early colonial period of Italy to the margins, as it lacks a unified colonizing mission sponsored by the government or military. Broadly, Italian colonial history is considered to be impactful to narratives of African colonization only during the Fascist era, beginning in 1922. Yet, the Italian Fascist colonial policy emerged from earlier ideas and practices, taking cues from the failures and successes of the Liberal Colonial Era (1870-1922). This thesis attempts to examine the disparate threads of colonial thought and practice of Italian citizens, laborers, elites, and explorers in the 19th century. Three major themes emerge as 19th-century Italian colonization takes shape: the influence of nationalism and Risogamento, the impact of Italy’s involvement in transnational infrastructural projects, and the transformation of the world through modern technologies of the railroad, steamships, and the telegraph. Journal articles from the Society of Italian Africa, and a photography collection taken in 1920 reveal the different strains of arguments around creating a colonial project. This archival documentation highlights what is important to different groups and the motivations towards colonization. Tracing the physical and ideological spaces of the early Italian Colonial Empire from the shores of Italy, to ports around Eastern Africa, and into the interior of the continent, this thesis will bring new light to an understudied era of Italian colonization.

Since the 1860s, petroleum companies, through their influence on local governments, port authorities, international actors and the general public gradually became more dominant in shaping the urban form of ports and cities. Under their development and pressure, the relationships between industrial and urban areas in port cities hosting oil facilities evolved in time. The borders limiting industrial and housing territories have continuously changed with industrial places moving progressively away from urban areas. Such a changing dynamic influenced the permeability of these borders. Port cities are nodes and logistic points where various flows of commodities, wealth, and knowledge gathered before further re‐distribution. These flows affected port cities by changing their spatial organization and the availabiity of space between borders. The main question here is: How did industrial and urban borders evolve through time in port cities? Through a historical analysis, the article explores the settlements of oil facilities and the influence of oil companies over local, regional, and national governments in creating borders and how it influenced the porosity of port cities. This article, through the petroleum narrative, illustrates the impacts of past borders on the contemporary urban form through the evolution of the French port city of Dunkirk, in the North of France. As a historical study, the article analyzes the changing relationships between petroleum industrial sites and housing areas in the city of Dunkirk, using aerial pictures, archival sources, and regulations of different periods. The importance of this analysis lies in knowing that former oil sites previously located on the periphery of Dunkirk, that were forgotten by the authorities are now located within the current urban tissue. This process demonstrates the importance of historical developments to understand current challenges in the urban planning of industrial port cities.

Port spaces, functions, and interests have shaped the growth and development of many cities around the world. At times, different stakeholders—private and public, local, regional, national and global—have collaborated to assure the continuity of port functions in old and new locations and, if the port relocates or if that effort fails, to redevelop former port spaces. Through the lens of port- and city-related urban developments in London, Hamburg, and Philadelphia, this article explores the multiple conditions that are part of port city resilience. It uses historical institutionalism as a theoretical framework for understanding these long-term changes, particularly in institutional and governance dynamics. It shows that the development paths of port and city spaces and the actors who shape them are not always aligned. Through the case of London, it shows a development path that is led by private investment building and relocating a world-class port and administrating it from the city center, while local and national institutions only intervene to balance spatial or social short-comings of the private actors. The case of the city-state Hamburg illustrates the development of shared port-city paths under long-term public leadership that has provided direction for the expanding port as well as for the growing city. In the case of Philadelphia, national interests, the Navy, and private investments played an important role in the creation of port infrastructure and, later, in the largely failed transformation of former port areas into public waterfronts. As shipping elites left the city and new land-based employers emerged, such as the University of Pennsylvania, the port-city path was partly discontinued. The article concludes by pointing to the expected capacity of each of these cities to address future challenges. Awareness of historical practices can help readers understand where current conditions may stand in the way of innovative solutions.

Resumo Fortaleza, capital do Ceará (Brasil), possui uma faixa litorânea aberta e sem porto natural e, desde o início do século XIX, o Governo e a opinião pública consideravam isso um entrave ao desenvolvimento económico da cidade. Logo, diversos projetos de melhoramentos portuários foram incentivados e implementados. Todavia, a construção de ancoradouro artificial alteraria a linha costeira, com impacto direto no meio ambiente, com rápido assoreamento do porto, forçando os engenheiros a encontrar alternativas. Objetiva-se compreender as ações empreendidas pelos engenheiros em suas intervenções no porto de Fortaleza entre 1869-1940, focalizando os efeitos e consequências do emprego de técnicas e de tecnologias no espaço físico-geográfico. Com base nos pressupostos teórico-metodológicos do Envirotech, os relatórios técnicos, governamentais, jornais especializados e mapas demonstram não apenas o surgimento do envirotechnical system portuário não limitado à Fortaleza, mas igualmente a extensa área de paisagem híbrida abarcando limites urbanos e naturais com impacto direto à costa. Resumen Fortaleza, capital de Ceará (Brasil), tiene una franja costera abierta y sin puerto natural, y, a principios del siglo XIX, el Gobierno y la opinión pública lo consideraban un obstáculo para su desarrollo económico. Consecuentemente, se implementaron varios proyectos de mejoramiento del puerto. La construcción de un fondeadero artificial alteraría el litoral, con impacto directo en la naturaleza, y rápido apelmazamiento del puerto, obligando a los ingenieros a buscar alternativas. El artículo busca comprender las acciones realizadas por los ingenieros en sus intervenciones en el puerto de Fortaleza, entre 18 69-1940, centrándose en los efectos y consecuencias del uso de técnicas y tecnologías en el espacio físico-geográfico. Los supuestos teórico-metodológicos de Envirotech, informes técnicos, gubernamentales, periódicos especializados y mapas demuestran el surgimiento del envirotechnical system portuario, no limitado a Fortaleza, sino a la extensa área de paisaje híbrido que abarca límites urbanos y naturales con impacto directo en la costa. Abstract Fortaleza, capital of Ceará (Brazil) has an unprotected coastal line without a natural port. Since the beginning of the 19th century, the Government and the public considered this an obstacle to the city's economic development. Therefore, port improvement projects were encouraged and implemented; however, the artificial anchorage construction altered the coastline, had a direct impact on the environment, with rapid silting of the port, and pushed engineers to find alternatives. This article aims to understand the actions taken by engineers regarding their interventions in the port of Fortaleza between 1869- 1940, focusing on the effects and consequences of the techniques and technologies used in this specific physical-geographic space. Envirotech's theoretical-methodological assumptions, technical and governmental reports, specialized journals, and maps endorse the creation of the port envirotechnical system, not limited to Fortaleza, but to an extended area of hybrid landscape including urban and natural limits with direct impact on the environment.

Port and city authorities all over Europe and beyond are striving with finding solutions able to combine sustainability with economic growth. Several global urgencies in fact, such as climate change, energy transition, the exponential changes in the scale of ports and ships and last but not least the economic and health shock related to the coronavirus pandemic, are challenging the spaces where ports physically meet their cities, generating processes of caesura within the urban patterns with consequent impacts on the quality of life. In port cities, infrastructures and energy flows overlap with city flows and patterns that change with different rhythms and temporalities. This discrepancy creates abandonment and marginality between port and city. This today is no longer sustainable. New approaches and solutions that look at integration and circularity rather than separation are necessary.Circularity has been widely discussed in the literature. However, the concept still remains very controversial, especially when it comes to port cities where new definitions are needed in particular to better understand the spatial dimension of circularity. The Rotterdam therefore case study stands exemplary. Here, the concept of the circular economy refers mostly to the theme of obsolete industrial buildings and marginal that are reinserted again within the urban metabolism. The case of Rotterdam points out that the competition of the port today goes through the quality of its relationship spaces and the ability of the different actors involved in the planning process to hold together economic growth and environmental sustainability. The areas along the river are in fact the most fascinating places in the city and today they are ready for a different use. In order for the city to become an attractive place to live it is necessary to build new, innovative and sustainable spatial visions. This will lead to scenarios of sustainable coexistence between port and city. Therefore, these two agendas (sustainable port and city attractiveness) came together in the area known as Makers district (M4H) which, together with RDM campus, represents the Rotterdam testing ground for innovation.Therefore, this chapter, by arguing that ports will play a crucial role in the transition towards more circularity investigates how to make it happen and how to transform the challenges of the port into opportunities for a territorial regeneration towards new forms of integration. In order to answer the question, the case of Rotterdam is presented to analyse a model of urban regeneration where different planning agencies—mainly port authority, municipality, universities and private parties—work together at different scales to define a sustainable coexistence of interests. The research, which draws data on existing literature and policy documents analysis, firstly introduces the spatial and governance structures of the city of Rotterdam as part of a bigger metropolitan region. Secondly, it analyses the case of “Stadshavens strategy” as an emblematic example to overcome conflicts and path dependencies at the intersection of land and water. Finally, it concludes by highlighting some limitations and path dependencies that could make the transition to new forms of the circular economy very difficult in the future.

International audience; Based on untapped shipping and urban data, this article compares the diffusion of steam and container shipping at the port city level and at the global scale between 1880 and 2008. A temporal and multi-layered network is constructed, including the pre-existing technologies of sailing and breakbulk. The goal is to check the differences a) between innovations and their predecessors and b) between innovations, from an urban network perspective. Main results show that despite certain differences, such as historical context, voyage length, speed of diffusion, and geographical spread, the two innovations share a large quantity of similarities. They both fostered port concentration, were boosted by city size and port connectivity, bypassed upstream port sites, and diverged gradually from older technologies. This research thus contributes to the literature on cities, networks, innovation, and maritime transport.

As awareness of the negative externalities created by ports increases, and the perceived local benefits decrease, ports must find new ways to improve the local noneconomic benefits they provide if they are to obtain local support. This global survey collected data from 51 ports in 26 countries. The results highlight a recognition by port authorities that ports face increasing pressure from local residents to reduce their negative impacts and that they should seek to improve the public perception towards the port by increasing local benefits. At present, port information and social media (81%), port events (67%) and education (63%) are the most adopted options. There is a lack of evidence that these measures are effective in improving local perceptions. Maritime museums and public access show a positive association with increasing local awareness of the benefits a port provides, despite their lower levels of adoption (45%). Port centres are the least adopted option at present (29%) and can be expected to increase significantly, with a 43% increase anticipated between numbers of current and expected future centres. Education (14%), public access (13%) and maritime museums (4.5%) also show increases in levels of interest. Maritime museums and public access should be pursued as proven, effective options for improving local perceptions of ports, whilst port centres may provide a new focal point for port-related social and cultural activities.

[Resumen] Las ciudades-puerto se han visto afectadas por las fuertes transformaciones de las últimas décadas y han ido modificando sus características y funciones a medida que avanzan los procesos de integración económica. Están estrechamente determinadas tanto por sus propias limitaciones geográficas, morfológicas y vínculos espaciales como por los mercados económicos. Por tanto, se sitúan frente a una doble lógica: la de atracción y la de rechazo de los flujos físicos. Dualidad que se fundamenta en gran parte sobre los trabajos de la interface puerto-ciudad y sobre las opciones de re-desarrollo de los espa-cios en crisis. En esta aportación se tratará de discernir la formación de los nudos portuarios siguiendo la evolución de las ciudades, se mostrará la evolución de la disociación física entre puerto y ciudad para, finalmente, subrayar las particularidades de una serie de ciudades y puertos europeos en sus tareas de redefinir sus funciones portuarias y sus orientaciones en torno a las relaciones puerto-ciudad. [Abstract] The port cities have been affected by the strong transformations of the last decades and have been changing their characteristics and functions as economic integration processes advance. They are closely determined both by their own geographical, morphological and spatial linkages as well as by economic markets. Therefore, they are placed in front of a double logic: the one of attraction and the one of rejection of the physical flows. Duality that is largely based on the works of the port-city interface and on the options for redevelopment of spaces in crisis. In this contribution will try to discern the formation of port knots following the evolution of cities, will show the evolution of physical dissociation between port and city to finally highlight the particularities of a number of European cities and ports in their tasks to redefine its port functions and its orientations around port-city relation.

L’objectif de cet article est de participer aux réflexions récentes sur l’évolution des registres d’action de l’Etat au Maroc en privilégiant une entrée spécifique, celle de la logistique considérée comme l’ensemble des activités et des opérations qui permettent l’acheminement des marchandises dans et entre les espaces urbains. L’analyse de la mise en place d’une politique nationale de la logistique et l’observation de sa déclinaison autour de deux configurations métropolitaines stratégiques de l’espace marocain – Le Grand Casablanca et Tanger – constituent un point d’entrée original pour observer cette recomposition en cours du rôle de l’Etat dans les politiques de développement du territoire. Cette réflexion est issue d’une recherche exploratoire basée sur une analyse documentaire (les documents de l’action publique) et une enquête de terrain menée à Casablanca et Tanger ainsi qu’à Rabat. Elle permet d’une part de confirmer l’importance politique croissante de cette question logistique dans un contexte de stratégie revendiquée d’intégration aux réseaux mondiaux valorisant une situation d’interface entre Europe et Afrique. Elle autorise d’autre part une lecture de ce renouvellement des registres d’action de l’Etat entre maintien d’une autorité centrale forte (par ses agences, ses opérateurs et le contrôle des acteurs locaux), décentralisation en cours et rôle croissant des grands opérateurs économiques. Du point de vue général, elle permet également d’illustrer et préciser la contribution de la logistique à la fabrique des territoires notamment métropolitains. The objective of this paper is to contribute to the reflections on the evolution of the role of the State in Morocco. We favour a reflection based on a specific economic sector, that of logistics. This logistical issue is considered in this research as the set of activities and operations that allow the transport of goods in and between urban areas. The analysis of a national logistics policy and the observation of the application of this policy around two metropolitan areas of the Moroccan area - Casablanca and Tangier - allows us to observe this recomposition of the role of the State in the development policies. This reflection is the result of exploratory research based on an analysis of public action documents and a field survey conducted in Casablanca and Tangier as well as in Rabat. On the one hand, it confirms the growing political importance of this logistical issue in the context of a strategy of integration into global networks. On the other hand, it allows a reading of this evolution of the State's roles between maintaining a strong central authority (through its agencies, operators and the control of local actors), ongoing decentralization and the increasing role of major economic operators. From a general point of view, this reflexion illustrates the contribution of logistics to the development of territories, particularly metropolitan areas.

Cristina reconstructs the features and dynamics of the maritime traffic of goods and people at the port of Catania during the first half of the nineteenth century. Particular attention is paid to the several typologies of cabotage, especially during the transition from sail to steam. Cabotage along the Eastern Sicilian coast adapts to its peculiar settlement and urban structure. Starting from a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the shipping movements recorded by the Maritime Police registers of Catania, ports appearing in the sources are classified as nodes with their own functions within the Eastern Sicilian coastal corridor.

“Spirit of Improvement” explores the social, economic, and architectural consequences of waterfront improvement initiatives undertaken in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston from the waning years of the colonial period through the passage of the first federally-sponsored warehousing act in 1846. City-dwellers replaced a haphazardly-constructed warren of crooked streets, wooden storehouses and buildings, and dilapidated wharves of the colonial period, with orderly streetscapes, brick and stone buildings, and expanded infrastructure dedicated to local and international commerce. Though in each city, construction differed in scale and regional form, improvements everywhere were a daunting physical, financial, and political task. This dissertation seeks to present the stories of men and women throughout American cities to uncover the social and economic complexities that lay at the heart of improvement initiatives in the colonial and early national periods. Merchants and speculators sought new forms of government authorization and the consent of property holders to reorder the landscape. Architects and engineers drafted cutting-edge designs for warehouses and harbors that looked to European examples and embraced the aesthetics of neoclassicism, industrial technology, and emerging theories of public health and disease prevention. White and black laborers dredged harbors, extended docks, and erected brick and stone warehouses. Female boardinghouse and shopkeepers established businesses adjacent to the wharves. Not only did residents confront the persistence of improvement projects in their midst, they also confronted their personal relationships to the abundance of interests jostling for prominence in the early-national marketplace. As a result, these initiatives proved highly contentious both for the elites who could afford to fund competing projects, as well as for the artisans, free and enslaved laborers, small business and property holders, and families living and working on the margins of society. As the cities’ poor and middling sorts witnessed the transformations occurring around them, many were left to grapple with the question, “Improvement, but for whom?” Today, inhabitants of America’s port cities will find many of these themes all-too familiar: the presence of corporate development along shorelines; the role of celebrated architects and planners in the design and construction of expensive waterfront buildings; the ousting of long-term residents and businesses in the face of high rents or shifting clientele; and the emergence of a socially invisible, but economically essential, service-sector workforce who provide the necessary labor to keep these ventures afloat. “Spirit of Improvement” seeks to uncover the complex historical roots of America’s fascination with waterfront development—a phenomenon that stretches back to the improvement initiatives of the early republic, when merchant-entrepreneurs began to truly exploit infrastructure’s economic potential. In the early nineteenth century, capitalist development served the interests of merchants and businessmen involved international trade and commerce. Today, we look to the future of our urban waterfronts and confront the historical foundations on which these physical and social structures stand.

Most of the Swahili port cities that occupied the western rim of the medieval Indian Ocean long-distance trading system were founded on islands. Dating from as early as the 10th century CE, Lamu and Zanzibar have become ‘museumified’ as World Heritage sites, while other island port cities, such as Kilwa and Pate, are now uninhabited ruins. Mombasa Island, however, despite numerous calamities, is an increasingly important commercial hub and gateway into East Africa. This study aims to determine how some intrinsic benefits of islandness have shaped the settlement patterns and architectural forms that embody this continuous process of urbanisation. A typological analysis serves to explore Mombasa Island’s layers of spatiality and morphology. More than any other East African city, this island reflects the synthesis of the distinctive settlement traditions of the Swahilis, Portuguese, Omanis and, subsequently, the British colonisers, through to its current state as a dynamic, modern urban centre. Compact, complex, and culturally diverse, its unique island concepts offer a wide range of contemporary urban and architectural solutions.

19. yüzyılın ortasındaküçük bir köy olan Mersin, yaklaşık elli yıl içerisinde Doğu Akdeniz’in önemlibir liman kenti haline geldi. 20. yüzyılın başına gelindiğinde kentin nüfusu15,000’e ulaşmış, ticaret hacmi katlanarak artmış ve ulaşım altyapısı hayligelişmişti. Mersin bir yandan bu gelişmelerin etkisi ile hızla zenginleşirken,öte yandan zenginliğin nasıl paylaşılacağına dair farklı toplumsal gruplararasında ciddi anlaşmazlıklara sahne olmaya başladı. Bu çalışma kenttekiiskeleler ile açıkta demirlemiş gemiler arasında nakliyat işi yapan istimbot vemavna şirketlerinin sahipleri, onların çalışanları ve esnaflar arasında 1905yılı yazında patlak veren böyle bir anlaşmazlığı incelemektedir. Osmanlıhükümetinin söz konusu anlaşmazlık hakkında hazırladığı detaylı soruşturmadosyasına dayanarak, ekonomik pastadan daha fazla pay kapma isteğininMersin’deki farklı toplumsal sınıflardan aktörler arasında ne tür çatışma veittifaklara zemin hazırladığı hakkında ipuçları sunmaktadır., Mersin was a small villagein the mid-19th century. However, within about fifty years, itbecame an important Eastern Mediterranean port city. By the early 20thcentury, its population had reached 15,000, volume of trade had multiplied, andtransportation infrastructure had been improved. As an outcome thesedevelopments, wealth began to pour in Mersin. However, at the same time, thecity began to witness disputes over the distribution of wealth. This studyexamines one such dispute that erupted in the summer of 1905 and involved theowners of boat companies, their workers, and artisans who were ferrying cargoesbetween the piers and ships anchored offshore. It sheds some important light onhow claims for a greater share of the pie fostered conflicts, and alliancesbetween people from different social classes in Mersin.

The main aim of this article is to present the results of the analysis of tourist space in Polish port cities. Particular attention has been paid to the aspect of tourism development in four cities (Szczecin, Świnoujście, Gdańsk and Gdynia). They are cities where ports of major importance for the national economy are located. This area is also characterized by significant tourist traffic. The state of tourist accommodation and tourist traffic intensity in four Polish port cities, according to some criteria, has been examined. It is indicated that the formation of tourism development is also dependent on the creation and implementation of policy. Due to the close relationship between effective transport and tourism, aspects of city logistics should be taken into account as well as others.

The aim of this paper is to assess the strength and weakness factors of post-industrial cities located in the Gulf of Naples in order to propose the most effective regeneration strategies towards a sustainable development of the urban coastline. This paper focuses on the city of Torre Annunziata and in particular on its industrial port area and waterfront. The analysis suggests that a sustainable development would be possible through the redesign and new functionalization of the waterfront and port area, improving resilience and creativity in order to integrate economic growth, ecological preservation and social opportunities. Thus, this paper is a proposal for a participative approach to the regeneration of the urban waterfront, enhancing the creative potential of the city and developing a new image for the waterfront that could become the strategic vision for a future economic, environmental and cultural development. A comparison between the waterfronts of Torre Annunziata and La Spezia has been carried out in order to assess what are the most effective choices for the future of Torre Annunziata, followed by an applicative process based on interviews.

This paper seeks to balance the regional and thematic focus of cholera historiography by examining maritime quarantine in Busan, as it was devised and implemented by Japanese officials and doctors during the pre-colonial period. It also places the relationship between Korea and Japan in the context of relations with China, Russia and Britain. This paper shows that quarantine measures in Busan and other Korean ports reflected the rise of Japanese imperial power and the increasing desire on the part of the Japanese to establish an effective borderline for their regional empire.From 1879 Japan began to impose maritime quarantine in Busan, where Japanese influence was very strong even before the colonial period, though at that time Japan was unable to perform quarantine in its own ports independently due to the objections of Western powers, particularly Britain. Victories in the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars established Japan as a regional power on equal terms with the West, and as the dominant power in Korea and Eastern Asia. With the acquisition of the right to impose quarantine in its homeland, Japan strengthened and extended the range of quarantine from Japan to Korea, China and Russia. Now quarantine screened Japan from potentially harmful agents – pathogenic and political – and its functions diversified further as modernisation and imperial expansion gathered pace. The reliance which Japan placed upon quarantine in maintaining its empire explains why it was increasingly out of step with other powers regarding international sanitary precautions. The Japanese maritime quarantine in Busan during this period therefore shows many aspects of Japan’s ‘national empire’.

The aim of this paper is to highlight some perspectives for the sustainable development of Naples, to direct future policies for the city. The proposed approach is based on the Historic Urban Landscape, which, being structurally integrated/systemic, allows the relationship between the historic center and the waterfront, as well as many contradictions, to be overcome, which in the city of Naples, have become particularly acute. The notion of Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) is the latest contribution to the international debate concerning the identification, preservation and valorization of cultural heritage. This new category, in fact, refers to the notion of context to emphasize the systemic interrelation between economic, social, environmental and cultural factors and the complexity of the framework within which conservation policies are inserted. It is in this perspective that the experiences of planning taking place in Naples are read, as a starting point for an innovative approach to the issue of an integrated conservation of the Historic Urban Landscape and, more generally, of the regeneration of the city. The starting point is the study of the experiences of urban transformation in some European port cities in order to “learn from comparison” to develop a theoretic approach based on the understanding of reality. The comparative analysis of case studies, through the synthesis of the most significant aspects of each port city, allows the relationship that exists between a phenomenon and its context to be understood and the critical success factors to be identified, in order to transfer the knowledge gained from good practices in the processes of regeneration of the city of Naples. Naples, for its stratified urban fabric, rich in tangible and intangible cultural values, and for its particular nodal position within the Mediterranean basin, lends itself effectively to a different approach to urban regeneration, which focuses on the relationship between the historic city and the sea.

This article examines the ambivalent relationship that San Francisco and Darwin developed with Asia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. On the one hand they presented themselves as gateways that facilitated trade with Asia. On the other hand they acted as sentinels that protected Europeans from Asian immigration. This quirky behaviour is encapsulated in the quarantine regulations that were applied in both ports to Asian commodities and people. The two case studies suggest a broader paradox in the history of port cities. Their prosperity and vitality rested upon the free flow of goods and people, but those flows generated enormous frictions.

Tez (Yüksek Lisans) -- İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2014, Thesis (M.Sc.) -- İstanbul Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology, 2014, Çalışma kapsamında, liman kenti, büyük ve genel bir başlık olarak kent kavramı çerçevesinde ele alınmaktadır. Liman kenti tanımı, bileşenlerinin neler olabileceği, limanın kent dönüşümündeki rolü değerlendirilerek İstanbul için, liman kenti kimliği dönüşümü değerlendirilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda liman kentlerinin, ilk kentten, endüstri kentine ve metropole geçişte, kentsel teoriler çerçevesinde konumlarının belirlenmesine çalışılmaktadır. Çalışmanın, bir diğer genel kavramı kimliktir. Kimlik kavramı liman kenti özelinde, fiziksel ve sosyal bileşenleri ile bir bütün olarak ele alınmaktadır. Kimlik tartışılırken eleştirel bir bakış açısı geliştirilmesi ön görülmektedir. Kentsel kimlik kavramını anlamlandıran öğeler üzerinde durulmaya çalışılmaktadır. Kimlik kavramının, liman kenti özelinde, gündelik hayattaki yansıması tartışılmaktadır. Gündelik hayat ifadesiyle kastedilen, kentlinin fiziksel ve sosyal açıdan kenti kullanım alışkanlıklarıyla yeniden biçimlendirerek anlamlandırmasıdır. Bu anlayışa paralel olarak, gündelik hayat dinamikleri içinde, kentlinin kenti kullanarak yarattığı kendiliğinden dönüşüm biçimi, kentsel kimliği biçimlendiren önemli bir bileşen olarak görülür. Bu genel başlıklar bağlamında, çalışma alanı olarak, bir liman kenti olan İstanbul ele alınmaktadır. İstanbul limanları içinde, günümüzde, kentin merkezinde sayılabilecek konumu, Tarihi Yarımada’yla ilişkisi, zamansal, mekansal ve sosyal açıdan geniş katmanlaşması göz önünde bulundurularak Galata-Karaköy seçilmiştir. Liman kenti ve kimlik (gündelik hayat) çerçevesinde Galata tarihsel süreç içinde değerlendirilirken, kendiliğinden dönüşümü ve planlı dönüşüm projeleri karşılaştırılmaya çalışılacaktır. İstanbul’un, Galata bölgesi özelinde, liman kenti kimliği çerçevesinde, kendiliğinden dönüşümü ile planlı dönüşümünün mimari ve kentsel açıdan tartışılması planlanmaktadır. Liman kentlerinde, özellikle liman bölgelerindeki dönüşüm süreçlerinde kentlinin rolü sorgulanmaktadır. Buna göre kentli bağlamında ve kentsel kimlik çerçevesinde, Galata’nın kendiliğinden gelişimi/dönüşümü ile planlı dönüşümü arasındaki ilişki, bu ilişkinin, İstanbul özelinde, kentsel tasarıma katkısının neler olabileceğinin araştırılması; aynı çerçevede Galataport projesinin tartışılması amaçlanmaktadır. Mevcut haliyle, kaotik bir görünüme sahip Galata ve civarında, gündelik hayatın dinamikleri doğrultusunda ortaya çıkan üretimlerin yarattığı kendiliğinden dönüşüm ile pek çok farklı katmandan kentlinin bir arada yaşayabildiği görülmektedir. Galata’nın liman kenti kimliğinin dönüşümünün geldiği noktaya “bir durum olarak” yaklaşılması, kentin anlanlandırılmasında önemlidir. Çalışma boyunca, kentli odağında ele alınan kent kavramı ve liman kenti kimliği dönüşümü doğrultusunda, kente yapılan her müdahalenin birincil müdahili kentlidir. Bu bağlamda, İstanbul’un liman bölgesi için yürütülecek planlamada, kısa vadede sonuçların öngörülebilirliğinin arttırılması, kentin mümkün olan en geniş perspektifte ele alınarak, minimum noktasal müdahale(ler) ve kentli odaklı bir projelendirmeyle mümkün görünmektedir., In this study, the port city is considered as a large and general title in the frame of city concept. By interpreting the definition of “port city”, the possible sub-components of it and the role of the port in the transformation of the city; the transformation of port city identity of Istanbul is evaluated. In this context, the position of port cities is located in the transition from the early city to industrial city and metropolis within the scope of urban theories. Today, city is composed of countless different components that cannot be seen at a single glance. This situation makes impossible to describe every piece that constitutes the city and hence to define the city completely with a unique description. In this respect, it might be said that the city exists as the interaction area of a great number of variables. In the present day, it is almost impossible to plan the cities since we have no idea on how to control the factors affecting the city. In each passing day, the borders of city become wider and more indefinite. The city, which is under a continuous transformation without any interference, offers an experience area for each citizen. In his or her everyday life the citizen destructs and constructs this “experience area” in physical, economic, social and cultural aspects perpetually. This continuous transformation carries the entire potential of citizen-city interaction. It is thought that the potentials of citizen-city interactions might create possibilities to understand and design city better. When the city concept is considered specifically as port city, water is appeared as an important datum of the discussion. Throughout the historical process water remains important for cities. As a borderline and/or transition space where water and land meets, the waterfront concept is a dominant component in the shaping of city – and the citizen- although its employment type differs due to technological, economic, social and cultural changes. Even if the relationship of Istanbul with water, waterfront and sea resembles the relationship of other port cities in a great deal of aspects, it differs with regard to its local properties. It is possible to say that dynamic waterfront spaces transform Istanbul with Istanbul citizens. Port city is a scene of transformation under the influence of transmarine economic bindings. It is impossible to explain this transformation created by many different factors under equilibrium with simple causations or chronological historic events. On the other hand, depending on the geographical conditions port offers a natural resource to the city. This resource might be political and economic or social and technological. Port cities have become the space of continuous transformation in the influence of urban planning approaches of age and in the axis of transmarine discoveries, the developments in the naval technologies and the changes in the commercial channels. Starting from the beginning of 20th century, port has lost its integrated place within the city at the center of social and everyday life. While the port is being vitalized with renovation projects, it is important not to make the port unattainable and to create spatial fictions with single functions. Another general concept of the study is ‘identity’. The concept of ‘identity’, in the scope of port cities, is taken into consideration as a whole with its physical and social components. As identity is discussed, it is anticipated that a critical point of view will be developed. The factors that give meaning to the urban identity concept will be emphasized. In the scope of port cities, the reflection of identity on everyday life is discussed. The term “everyday life”, here, implies the citizen interpretation of the city physically and socially by reshaping it through his or her habits. Parallel to this interpretation, self-transformation created by the citizen with the utilization of city in everyday life dynamics is considered as an important component. It is observed that handling city’s identity discussion with limited and reductionist approaches experiences difficulty in covering the organic-structured, multi-layered and with citizen transforming city definition. Being tightly linked to a historical stationary structure the identity concept, in city domain, is thought to be incomplete in the interpretation of city. In this respect, urban identity is considered as a continuously transforming existence that reverberate the space by stratifying. Considering urban identity as a continuous existence and interpreting the citizen with the city as a means that changes the city, make it possible to continue the identity discussion in everyday life context. According to this, it is possible to consider the urban identity concept in citizen’s everyday life. Today, urban identity is the productions under the speed, dynamism and temporariness of citizen’s everyday life. Everyday life practices as a part of city’s transformation are thought to be important for the citizen to interpret the city as an experience and production area. On the other hand, in the direction of identity discussion carried out, plurality is considered as important for Istanbul. Istanbul port city identity, being at the center of the discussion, is considered as one of many components of Istanbul. What emphasized in this respect is the high level of difficulty in the interpretation of historically, politically and socially multi-layered cities such as Istanbul with one-sided views, and the study is focused on a component of Istanbul and the dominant identity of this component. In the context of these titles, Istanbul, which is a port city, is considered as the work space. Among from the ports of Istanbul, Galata-Karaköy is selected by regarding its current central location in the city, its relationship with the “Historical Peninsula”, and its extensive temporal, spatial and social stratifications for the study. While Galata-Karaköy is being evaluated in the historical period with the frame of port city and identity (everyday life), its self-transformation and planned transformation projects will be compared. It is planned to run a discussion on the architectural and urban aspects of self-transformation and planned transformation of Istanbul, specifically in Galata-Karaköy region, within the port city identity frame. The role of the citizens on the transformation processes in port cities, especially in port regions, is examined. According to this, in the context of citizen and the frame of urban identity, the relationship between the self-transformation/development and planned transformation of Galata, and the contribution of this relationship to urban design are researched and a discussion on Galataport project in this frame is aimed. Considering the shaping of Galata, the effects of interferences done by the central governments and local municipalities are obvious. It can be said that this shaping is reflected to citizen’s use. On the other hand, what is the influence of citizen’s everyday life practice on this shaping? In the context of citizen’s everyday life, what kind of a self-transformation can be referred to? At this point, it is critical to consider the planned transformation projects and self-transformation phenomena objectively. Ongoing transformation of Galata and the projects directed to the beautification of the region are evaluated by considering the transformations done in the port region of world’s important port cities. At this point, however, it is important to relate the city’s original structure with world cities’ similarities. Even though Galata is under a transformation process almost at the same time with the examples in the Europe, it has some differences in dynamical aspects. In 19th century, Istanbul still had a middle age city view (Akın, 1998). The city did not experience the industrial revolution and did not confront with the problems appeared through the industrial revolution. In 19th century’s Galata, the meaning of transformation is a package of renovations offered by the central authority. These renovations are prepared by considering the urban planning studies done in Europe at the same age. However, these imported projects could not get meaning in citizen’s everyday life and hence the expected transformation was not obtained. The ongoing transformation of Galata today, on the other hand, has come into existence under the influence of much more complicated factors. The work, most of which has been done by the central government or the local municipalities under the influence of the central government and under the pressure of the political regime, has been kept away from the contemporary urban planning approaches and discussions. This process gained speed starting from the mid of the 20th century and in this process the region has lost many of its structures, citizen-water relationship has ended completely and Pera’s (Beyoğlu) attraction and dense use could not be transferred to Galata. This part of the city has become unfavorable for the citizen. It is obvious that taking the transformation concept as a solution seeking for a problem not a process is a problematic point of view at the start as it is tried to be defined in the first section. In this respect, it is important to consider the transformation as city’s shaping by the citizen. In the transformation of this relatively smaller region with respect to the examples it is compared, the region’s local dynamics are the elements that creates difference. Looking chaotic in its current state, the citizens coming from different layers can coexist together as a result of the self-transformation occurring due to the dynamics of everyday life in Galata and its neighborhood. It is important to approach the point where Galata’s port city identity’s transformation has come as “a state” with regard to the interpretation of the city. Throughout the study, the primary interferer that interferes to the city in the direction of port city identity transformation and in the concept of city considered with a focus on the citizen is citizen. In this respect, it is critical to approach the planning of Istanbul’s port region with minimum pinpoint interference and with a citizen-centered attitude. In addition to this, it is possible to increase the predictability of short term results by considering the city with the widest possible perspective. Galata is not a space of a designed and completed whole but the space of half-finished, trial-and-errors and simple interferences. It is possible to view the resource of vitality and dynamism as the interface and/or interaction areas of these dualities. The chaotic appearance and paradoxes of Galata – and even most of Istanbul- only expresses a state in the interpretation of the city’s today., Yüksek Lisans, M.Sc.

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Wiley via https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12340, While Burma has often been discussed at the margins of South and Southeast Asian historiography, contemporary scholarship has begun to construct Burma as central to wider regional and inter-Asian histories. This essay considers how notions of nationhood and citizenship relating to Rangoon’s urban environment can begin to be understood in light of recent historical work on other Asian port cities. Looking at published work on Asian cities like Bombay, Hong Kong and Singapore, this article constructs a contextual framework from which Rangoon’s role in building a Burmese identity can be analysed. Nikhil Rao’s $\small \textit{House, But No Garden}$ on Bombay offers a productive means through which a middle-class and commercial Burmese identity could be constructed in Rangoon’s pre-war ‘suburbs’, while Alan Smart’s $\small \textit{The Shek Kip Mei Myth}$ on Hong Kong and Loh Kah Seng’s $\small \textit{Squatters into Citizens}$ on Singapore provide a way of understanding the role that disaster and crisis play on forming identities of belonging and citizenship among the poorest sections of Rangoon’s war torn post-war society. These cities, along with others across the Indian Ocean world – each with a long, continuous and often separate tradition of historical inquiry – can then help begin to build an understanding of citizenship and nationhood in Burma as it relates to the construction of Rangoon’s urban environment.

China has been through a period of remarkable urban sprawl since the reform and opening-up policy in 1978, with the highest urbanization occurring in the coastal zones. Sustainable urban development requires a better understanding of the spatiotemporal characteristics of urbanization. This study systematically explored urban sprawl in Chinese coastal cities with a visual interpretation method from 1979 to 2013. The results show that urban built-up areas kept increasing at a faster pace during the study period (i.e., increased about 9-fold in 34 years), especially in the first decade of the 21st century. Spatially, urban sprawl intensity generally peaked in the urban fringe. Urban built-up areas expanded mostly at a cost to cultivated land and non-urban built-up land, and became more irregular and less compact through the study period. Land-use policies, economic development levels, port developments and locations are all closely related with urban sprawl in these port cities. The results also suggest that improving the utilization efficiency of urban land and coordinating the development of city and port are necessary and important for sustainable development in coastal cities.

Las transformaciones que las ciudades vivieron durante el periodo de la Antigüedad Tardía determinaron la continuidad y supervivencia de las mismas. En este proceso, las ciudades portuarias tuvieron un desarrollo particular ligado, en muchos casos, a su función comercial o militar. Los Campos Flegreos reúnen en poco espacio puertos de distinta naturaleza, por ese motivo hemos tomado los ejemplos de Pozzuoli, Baia y Miseno para comprobar, si fuese posible, qué factores serán determinantes en esta evolución que encaminará a las ciudades hacia la Edad Media. The transformations that the cities lived during the period of the Late Antiquity determined their continuity and survival. Port cities were one of the most remarkable examples in this process because of their particular development, in many cases, due to his commercial or military function. The Phlegrean Fields assemble in little space ports of different nature, for this reason we have taken the cases of Pozzuoli, Baia and Miseno to verify, if it is possible, what kind of factors could be determinant in this evolution that will direct them to the Middle Ages.

This contribution analyzes the tension between formal public planning and private parties in relation to the urbanization processes triggered by the Ten-Year plan (1956-1965) for the expansion of the port of Antwerp. Originally an infrastructure project aimed at the improvement of port facilities, this plan triggered a wide-spread urbanization process in the area to the northeast of the city of Antwerp. Formally established as a national public works initiative, the plan was executed largely by the local authorities, in a complex institutional framework, where local and national interests sometimes conflicted. The paper will first focus on this complex institutional framework, as well as on the role of other actors, such as private enterprises, trade unions and planners and architects in the establishment of this project. Trade unions as well as local business circles played a crucial role in triggering the political decision-making process that led to the Ten-year plan. A utopian plan for the construction of satellite towns as the complement to the new industrial areas, proposed as a personal counter project by Renaat Braem, a renowned Belgian architect and former collaborator of Le Corbusier, influenced the actual urbanization process. The latter proposal proved fruitful in counterbalancing local port and city authority interests in the economic and infrastructural dimension of the urbanization process. The proposal brought the issue of housing and the preservation of existing communities to the attention of national government officials, which in turn led to a more balanced and integrated urbanization process. This process was mainly guided by independent public and private housing developers as well as by individual home-builders, within a very limited and selective framework outlined by formal government-led planning. As such, public infrastructure construction appears as a strategic project that triggers a much wider urbanization process. It successfully introduced a limited and selective framework -the infrastructure backbone- onto which a largely privately led urbanization process took place. In this sense the case study is illustrative for the particular urbanism and urbanization history of Belgium in the post war years, as compared to some of its immediate neighbors such as France and the Netherlands, where a much more thoroughly pursued and encompassing national public planning effort determined post war urbanization. In the Belgian case, formal spatial planning occupied a much less prominent role with a much greater role for private parties in the urbanization process. This particular 'Belgian' approach relies on the practice of strategic spatial projects as a steering mechanism. In that sense, it offers interesting clues for present-day debates on a greater role for private parties in planning and forms of public private partnerships.