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Many countries have programmes to help young people start farming. However, some of the programmes have been criticized for not providing enough support, particularly because they do not adequately account for the diverse profiles of young farmers. The present study analyses the profiles of young farmers in Thailand and to what extent they benefit from support programmes. Eighty-four farmers under the age of 40 were interviewed in Chiang Mai and Prachinburi Provinces, along with 15 staff members of support programmes for young farmers. Five types of young farmers were identified, who differed in their motivation, farming systems and engagement in farming. Some farmers focused on economic profitability, while others considered environmentally sustainable farming practices to be important or were actively engaged in other activities at domestic or village level. This wide range of goals and situations entailed varying constraints during the first years of farming. The support programmes helped farmers overcome their lack of farming knowledge and helped them integrate into rural communities, but the support they provided in accessing land and capital was sometimes limited, and often non-existent. To improve support for young farmers in Thailand, the diversity of young farmers’ profiles should be accounted for not only in capacity-building activities but also to help them access other types of resources.

International audience; On the basis of task bundling and on a private ownership of equipment, public-private partnerships (PPP) should be more efficient than public procurement (PuP). However, some French PPPs do not produce this extra-efficiency. This is particularly the case of newly-created French prisons. In continuation of the literature on PPPs, we study this case of prison construction in order to clarify the reasons for this PPP inefficiency. Thus, we highlight how the transition from a PuP to a PPP can lead to an oligopoly that generates a rent in a low competitive environment. We also highlight the fact that the partnership consortium is imperfect and does not generate the expected incentive system.; Avec le groupage des tâches et la propriété privée de l’équipement, les partenariats public-privé (PPP) devraient être plus efficients que la commande publique traditionnelle (CPT). Toutefois, certains PPP ne produisent pas ce supplément d’efficience. C’est notamment le cas pour les nouvelles prisons françaises. Dans le prolongement de la littérature relative aux PPP, nous étudions le cas de la construction de ces prisons afin d’expliciter les raisons de cette inefficience. Ainsi, nous mettons en exergue comment, dans un environnement concurrentiel peu favorable, le passage de la CPT au PPP peut conduire à la formation d’un oligopole en capacité d’extraire une rente. Nous montrons également que le consortium signataire du contrat de partenariat est imparfait et ne génère pas le système d’incitation attendu.

PPR remains a major challenge to smallholder farmers in Mali. To understand the drivers of low adoption of vaccination by farmers, we analyzed the socio-economic factors influencing farmer WTV during and in the absence of vaccination campaigns. Given that the costs associated with vaccination are largely borne by farmers, we assessed factors that associated with farmer willingness to pay (WTP) more than the current price (150 XOF per dose) by considering two attributes of improvement of the vaccines empirically highlighted as potential leverage points for intervention: access of farmers to vaccines (reducing the distance to the vaccine) and availability of information about the quality of the vaccine (introducing a vaccine viability detector). Data were collected in Mopti and Sikasso regions from 304 producers. Overall (n = 304), 89 percent of respondents vaccinated their herds during official vaccination campaigns. They are associated with receiving information on the campaign calendar more quickly if information is relayed at places of worship and if they have an awareness of the benefits of vaccination, including the protection of third parties. Only 39 percent of respondents vaccinate outside vaccination campaigns. They are positively linked to the credibility of private veterinarians and a recognition of the vital importance of vaccines but are negatively associated with ignorance of vaccination needs and concern about vaccine side-effects. Both distance-effects and quality-tracker effects are associated with farmer willingness to pay more than the current vaccine prices. Farmers practicing semi-intensive production systems are willing to pay 20 percent more than the current vaccine prices, as are users who believe in the beneficial effects of vaccination, users who consider the prices of vaccines as fair, and those who believe that some vaccines are more important than others. Factors that discourage producers from vaccinating or from paying more for vaccination would be more effectively managed with better communication on vaccine benefits through targeted information dissemination campaigns by Malian authorities. Greater price transparency throughout the vaccine production and deployment chain is critical, while timely availability of vaccine tested for viability would increase the willingness to vaccinate while improving access.

International audience; Understanding how carbon and biodiversity vary across tropical forest landscapes is essential to achieving effective conservation of their respective hotspots in a global context of high deforestation. Whether conservation strategies aimed at protecting carbon hotspots can provide co-benefits for biodiversity protection, and vice versa, highly depends on the extent to which carbon and biodiversity co-occur at the landscape level. We used field measurements and easily accessible explanatory variables to model aboveground carbon density, soil carbon density and tree alpha diversity (response variables) over a mostly forested area of northern Borneo. We assessed the spatial relationships between response variables and the spatial congruence of their hotspots. We found a significant positive relationship between aboveground carbon density and tree alpha diversity, and an above-than-expected-by-chance spatial congruence of their hotspots. Consequently, the protection of areas of high aboveground carbon density through financial mechanisms such as REDD+ is expected to benefit tree diversity conservation in the study area. On the other hand, relationships between soil carbon density and both aboveground carbon density and tree alpha diversity were negative and spatial congruences null. Hotspots of soil carbon density, mostly located in peatlands, therefore need specific conservation regulations, which the current moratorium on peat conversion in Indonesia is a first step toward.

The dynamics in livelihood needs of people at the fringes of tropical forests have increased the stakes and management challenges of biodiversity worldwide. Since the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the importance of biodiversity has been emphasized in several international agreements. However, the incentives to implement such agreements in poor countries are lacking. The present study characterised the determinants of deforestation, and forest management practices within Mabira Forest Reserve (MFR) in central Uganda. This was done within the context of the evolution of the policy and legal frameworks of Uganda. Literature on MFR as well as the policy and legal framework on forests and related resources was reviewed. The results show that evolution of the forest policy was characterised by limited input from key stakeholders. Moreover, there has been political interference and limited sharing of benefits amid failure to harmonize the forestry policy with relevant policies of related sectors. Consequently, deforestation has continued. To address this anomaly, we encourage the involvement of all key stakeholders including local people in designing management guidelines and sharing benefits from forests as an incentive for participation to promote sustainable forest growth. This is crucial for the success of forest restoration programmes in the tropics.

South-South cooperation is grounded in the idea that partners from the developing world are well placed to propose solutions inspired by their own experiences. A study of the dynamics of the circulation of instruments of public policy framed in the agricultural sector between Brazil and Sub-Saharan Africa under the Lula administration (2003–2010) reveals that political entrepreneurs play a key role in the early transfer stages of this process and that a technical logic of policy transfer through South-South cooperation may pose important challenges to the later stages of reception and adaptation. A notion of complementarity between agribusiness and family farming that reflects recent governmental discourse has been influential in the formulation of initiatives. A cooperação sul-com-sul se baseia na ideia de que os parceiros do mesmo mundo se situam bem para propor soluções inspiradas pela sua própria experiência. Um estudo da dinâmica de como se difundam os instrumentos das políticas públicas adotadas no setor agrícola entre o Brasil e os paises da África sub-saariana dos tempos da administraçõ do Presidente Lula (2003–2010) revela que os empresários públicas tiveram um papel chave nas etapas iniciais deste processo e que uma lógica técnica da transferència das políticas para tal cooperação sul-com-sul pode apresentar desafios importantes às etapas subsequentes da recepção e adaptação. Uma noção de que pode existir uma complementaridade entre os agronegócios e a agricultura familial—algo que se nota atualmente no discurso governamental—estaba influencial em formular os iniciativos.

International audience; Market based instruments for ecosystem services have become the norm since the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment advanced the concept of "ecosystem services" as an international reference in global govemance. In this way, market based instruments for ecosystem services have increasingly been implemented within nation States. In this paper we analyze the role of environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in spreading market based instruments for ecosystem services. We put forward the hypothesis that: when a State cannot adequately defend its political and economic sovereignty to produce its own public policies, then the environmental NGOs are strong policy entrepreneurs, that are able to diffuse standards and policy instruments. When a State is more politically and economically capable, the role of environmental NGOs as policy entrepreneurs is more limited. To test this hypothesis, we analyze the diffusion of market based instruments for ecosystem services in three contrasted countries regarding State and NGOs' respective strength: Costa Rica, Madagascar and France. A comparison and analysis of the dissemination of the market based instruments for ecosystem services in different countries therefore seems highlk relevant for analyzing such transfers of international standards and policy instruments.

A political and social recognition of ecosystem services is increasingly complementing that of services generally expected from agriculture. It is in this context that this chapter discusses the role of payments for environmental services in regulating agricultural and forestry activities. We first show how the initial representation of payments for environmental services as "market instruments", designed to ensure the internalization of environmental externalities, has evolved over almost 20 years of implementation characterized by the funding and management primarily by the State of payments for environmental services. Payments for environmental services are now widely recognized as transfers aimed at influencing private and/or collective use of land, and addressing political and institutional concerns regarding the management of natural resources. After noting the benefits and limitations of environmental and sustainable labels in relation to payments for environmental services, we propose an original and integrative approach for such payments at the local and national levels, which combines agri-chain approaches (labels, zero deforestation) and territorial approaches, in order to reconcile conservation and development of territories by ensuring the sustainability of agricultural activities.

Ces dernières décennies ont été marquées par de notables progrès en matière de santé dans les pays en développement. Mais l’amélioration de la santé dans le monde en développement reste confrontée à de nombreux défis pour lesquels il y a d’importants déficits de connaissance concernant un certain nombre de « grandes questions », dont certaines interpellent particulièrement l’économiste de la santé. Quatre sont examinées dans cet article : (i) Que voudrait-on encore savoir concernant les relations entre santé et croissance ? (ii) Quelles sont les principales implications qui se dégagent de « l’hypothèse des origines foetales » ? (iii) Quels sont les points qu’il conviendrait d’approfondir au premier chef pour mieux cerner les relations entre institutions, incitations, efficience et modification des comportements en matière de demande de soins ? (iv) La répartition de l’aide à la santé, très importante en volume et en pourcentage des dépenses de santé, correspond-elle aux besoins et vient-elle réellement augmenter les ressources disponibles pour le financement de la santé ? L’article montre en quoi les zones d’ombre qui subsistent nuisent à l’efficacité et à l’efficience des politiques et des mesures permettant d’accélérer les progrès en matière de santé. Réduire ces déficits de connaissances, et en diffuser très largement les résultats, relève in fine d’une problématique de production de bien public mondial. Last decades were marked by significant progress as regards health in the developing countries, although large disparities between countries remain. But the improvement of health in the developing world is still confronted with many challenges for which there are important deficits of knowledge for several “great issues”, some of them challenging particularly health economists. This article is focused on four: (i) What would one like to still know regarding the relations between health and growth? (ii) Which are the main implications which emerge from “the fetal origins hypothesis”? (iii) Which are the hot topics which it would be advisable to look further for a better understanding of the relationships between institutions, incentives, efficiency and modification of household behaviors as regards healthcare demand? (iv) Does distribution of international aid to health, very important in volume and expressed as a percentage of the health expenditure, correspond to the needs, and really increases the available resources for the financing of health? The article shows in what the remaining areas of darkness harm the effectiveness and the efficiency of the policies and programs devoted to health improvement. Reducing these deficits of knowledge, and disseminating the related results of research is in fine an issue of producing a global public good.

La théorie comme la pratique des affaires ont semblé obéir à deux croyances : les marchés devraient être flexibles et les entreprises devaient chercher à optimiser la performance individuelle de leurs employés. Ces croyances reposent sur l’idée que, pour faire face à une information qui est inégalement distribuée, peut être cachée ou manipulée, il suffit de concevoir des incitations individuelles appropriées. La création de connaissance requiert au contraire la mise en oeuvre de réseaux sociaux, entre entreprises comme dans l’entreprise, dédiés à coordonner les investissements concurrents comme complémentaires dans un monde caractérisé par l’irréversibilité et l’incertitude., Theory and business practice seemed to obey two beliefs: markets should be flexible and firms should seek to maximize the individual performance of their employees. These beliefs are based on the idea that, in order to deal with an information which is unevenly distributed, hidden or manipulated, only appropriate individual incentives are needed. On the contrary, creation of knowledge requires the implementation of social networks, between firms and inside the firm, aimed at coordinating competitive as well as complementary investments in a world characterized both by irreversibility and uncertainty., La teoría y la práctica de los negocios parecen obedecer a dos creencias: los mercados deben ser flexibles y las empresas deben optimizar el desempeño individual de sus empleados. Estas creencias encuentran fundamento en la idea que, para hacer frente a una información disparmente distribuida, escondida o manipulada, solo basta con proporcionar los incentivos individuales adecuados. Sin embargo, la creación de conocimiento requiere la puesta en marcha de redes sociales, entre empresas como así también al interior de la propia empresa, destinadas a coordinar tanto las inversiones competitivas como las complementarias en un mundo caracterizado por la irreversibilidad y la incertidumbre.

The originality of the REDD proposal is its incentives-based mechanism designed to reward the governments of developing countries for their performance in reducing deforestation as measured against a baseline. This mechanism is founded on the hypothesis that developing countries 'pay' an opportunity cost to conserve their forests and would prefer other choices and convert their wooden lands to other uses. The basic idea is, therefore, to pay rents to these countries to compensate for the anticipated foregone revenues. The reference to the theory of incentives (in its principal-agent version) is implicit but clear. In this REDD-related framework, the Government is taken as any economic agent who behaves rationally i.e. taking decisions after comparing the relative prices associated to various alternatives, then deciding to take action and implementing effective measures to tackle deforestation and shift the nation-wide development path. Such an approach ignores the political economy of the state, especially when dealing with "fragile" or even "failing" states facing severe but chronicle institutional crises, which are often ruled by "governments with private agendas" fuelling corruption. Two assumptions underlying the REDD proposal are particularly critical: (i) the idea that the government of such a state is in a position to make a decision to shift its development pathway on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis that anticipates financial rewards, and (ii) the idea that, once such a decision has been made, the "fragile" state is capable, thanks to the financial rewards, to implement and enforce the appropriate policies and measures which could translate into deforestation reduction. The first sections of the article discuss the pertinence of applying such a REDD version of the theory of incentives to Governments, and particularly to Governments in fragile states, with respect to the historical patterns and the practical way those states work. The last sections discuss the possibility of alternative architecture for REDD, focusing on policies and measures targeting the drivers of deforestation, and investments for intensifying agriculture, reforming land tenure and enhancing the functioning of the judicial system. We will show why incentive mechanisms should be used at another scale, for the benefits of local economic agents (companies, rural households, communities, etc.), and how a scaling down is likely to alleviate some of the constraints faced by incentives when dealing at Government level.

L’évaluation des réseaux de santé est une condition (nécessaire bien que non suffisante) de leur pilotage pertinent, par les Agences Régionales de Santé. Dans un premier temps, nous partons d’un constat critique qui cible, entre autres, le cloisonnement récurrent du système de soins français, pour repenser, dans un second temps, les modalités de cette évaluation. La mise en évidence d’une dualité normative de l’évaluation, outil de réduction de l’asymétrie informationnelle et support de délibération entre acteurs, débouche sur la proposition d’outils susceptibles de concrétiser ces propriétés théoriques. Nous envisageons ainsi un instrument de suivi de l’activité transversale des réseaux construit par épisodes de soins, complété par une évaluation de la qualité, qui empruntent simultanément à la Théorie des Contrats et à l’Economie des Conventions. Evaluation constitutes one of the key conditions to be accomplished by the upcoming Agences Régionales de Santé in order to assure efficient government of health networks. From a critical point of view we first consider the recent development of French networks, hindered by the persistent segmentation of the health care system. Secondly, we redefine the modalities of network evaluation. We underscore the normative duality of evaluation, which constitutes a mean to reduce information asymmetries but which is also a medium through which agents can deliberate. We propose concrete tools to take shape to those theoretical properties. We particularly consider a “transverse-information system” built from the definition of episodes of care, in association with current quality assessment procedures, from the Contracts Theory then the Economics of Conventions perspectives.

International audience; Paying communities or producers to maintain the quality of water or biodiversity; encouraging farmers to adopt environmentally friendly practices; paying developing countries to avoid deforestation and thereby reduce CO2 emissions: interest in payments for environmental services (PES) is growing throughout the world. However, past experience shows that PES are not without their problems: the criterion used to determine the amount; the methods used to evaluate effectiveness; and the uncertain use of payments, etc. Hence the proposal to combine direct incentives to protect ecosystems, especially forests, with the ecological intensification of agriculture and investment in land.; Rémunérer des communautés ou des producteurs pour maintenir la qualité de l'eau ou la biodiversité ; inciter des agriculteurs à adopter des pratiques respectueuses de l'environnement ; rétribuer les pays en développement pour ne pas déboiser, et diminuer ainsi les émissions de CO2 : l'intérêt pour les paiements pour services environnementaux (PSE) s'accroît partout dans le monde. Pourtant les expériences passées montrent que les PSE ne sont pas indemnes de dysfonctionnements : le critère utilisé pour déterminer le montant ; les modalités d'évaluation de l'efficacité ; l'utilisation incertaine des paiements... D'où la proposition de coupler les incitations directes à protéger les écosystèmes, et notamment les forêts, avec l'intensification écologique de l'agriculture et l'investissement dans le foncier.

Strategies for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) could become an important part of a new agreement for climate change mitigation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. We constructed a system dynamics model for a cocoa agroforest landscape in southwestern Ghana to explore whether REDD payments are likely to promote forest conservation and what socio-economic implications would be. Scenarios were constructed for business as usual (cocoa production at the expense of forest), for payments for avoided deforestation of old-growth forest only and for payments for avoided deforestation of all forests, including degraded forest. The results indicate that in the short term, REDD is likely to be preferred by farmers when the policy focuses on payments that halt the destruction of old-growth forests only. However, there is the risk that REDD contracts may be abandoned in the short term. The likeliness of farmers to opt for REDD is much lower when also avoiding deforestation of degraded forest since this land is needed for the expansion of cocoa production. Given that it is mainly the wealthier households that control the remaining forest outside the reserves, REDD payments may increase community differentiation, with negative consequences for REDD policies.

It is hotly debated today whether the reduction of tropical deforestation should be supported by a mechanism within the Convention for Climate Change. This mechanism, known as "avoided deforestation," would benefit developing countries that voluntarily reduce their deforestation rates, thereby generating at least two positive impacts: (a) an increase in the financial resources available to curb tropical deforestation, with expected positive side effects on biodiversity conservation, the environmental services provided by these forests, and sustainable development as a whole; and (b) a greater effectiveness of the global fight against climate change, because tropical deforestation contributes extensively to world carbon emissions. Several proposals were designed for such a mechanism, yet their implementation poses significant methodological problems: first, sophisticated tools available to measure the reduction of emissions might be ineffective when combined with baselines on a national level secondly, baselines calculated ex ante lack accuracy because of insufficient knowledge concerning the direct and underlying causes of deforestation; thirdly, baselines calculated ex post lack legitimacy because they only refer to past trends; and fourthly, it is challenging to relate a reduction in deforestation rates to public policy options in the host country.Drawing lessons from our analysis of the methodological problems for the implementation of the mechanism, we recommend not promoting any mechanism based on financial rewards for an assumed voluntary reduction of national tropical deforestation rates. Two reasons justify our perspective: not only would the mechanism probably generate fake reductions ("hot air"), but undesirable side effects-detailed in this paper-would also appear. Instead, we encourage industrialized countries to better use already existing multi-and bilateral instruments, which focus on the correction of governance deficiencies in countries home to tropical forests. It is also necessary to focus on the suppression of "perverse incentives" from public policies in tropical countries.

The growth in variable pay is usually associated with the desire to provide incentives . However , the sorting explanation has been under-emphasized . Frequently , data are consistent with the sorting explanation as well as the incentive story , but the implications , both at positive and normative levels , are quite different . The evidence from the real world is consistent with the use of variable pay as a selection or sorting device , particularly at the managerial level . The importance of the sorting explanation is greatest in new industries ., Le recours accru au salaire variable est généralement associé au souhait de créer des incitations . Toutefois , l ’ explication par la sélection n ’ a jusqu ’ ici pas été suffisamment prise en compte . Il est fréquent que les données corroborent les deux explications , par la sélection et par l ’ incitation , mais les conséquences , tant du point de vue pratique que normatif , sont tout à fait différentes . Les éléments de réalité confirment que le salaire variable est utilisé comme un outil de sélection , ou de tri , notamment au niveau de l ’ encadrement . C ’ est dans le domaine des nouvelles industries que l ’ explication par la sélection revêt toute son importance . Mots-clés : incitation , tri , sélection, Lazear Edward P. Salaire à la performance : incitation ou sélection. In: Économie & prévision, n°164-165, 2004-3-4. Économie des ressources humaines. pp. 17-25.

Mobility Strategies and Benefits from seniority in France. This article examines the impact of mobility strategies on the valuation of benefits from seniority in France. An estimation using mobility variables shows that benefits from seniority are nearly one-and-a-half times as high as the standard valuation. Benefits from seniority seem to result from incentive-led contracts rather than the optimisation of specific human capital., Nous étudions l’incidence des stratégies de mobilité sur l’évaluation des rendements de l’ancienneté en France. Une estimation intégrant des variables de mobilité et d’intention de mobilité conduit à des rendements de l’ancienneté près de une fois et demi supérieurs en regard d’une évaluation standard. Ces derniers semblent plutôt résulter de contrats incitatifs que de la valorisation de capital humain spécifique., Lemistre Philippe, Plassard Jean-Michel. Stratégies de mobilité et rendements de l'ancienneté en France. In: Économie & prévision, n°155, 2002-4. pp. 45-60.

Hybrid Price And Quantity Instruments for Greenhouse Gas Emission Permits. Under uncertainty regarding marginal abatement costs, a market for pollution rights is not efficient in dealing with cost risks. The paper presents a hybrid instrument in which the market price is bounded by a floor price via a subsidy and a cap price via a tax. The optimal instrument is computed in an analytical case study. In light of arguments against subsidies, an asymmetric instrument with a tax cap and no price floor is introduced and the optimum is determined. Hybrid and asymmetric instruments are seen to be particularly appropriate to the specific nature of climate change. Other possible combinations of taxes and permits are also examined., En situation d’incertitude sur les coûts marginaux de dépollution, un marché de droits à polluer ne permet pas de traiter efficacement le risque de coûts. L’article présente un instrument mixte qui encadre le prix de marché par un plancher à l’aide de subvention et par un plafond grâce à une taxe libératoire. L’instrument optimal est calculé dans un cas analytique. Compte tenu des raisons qui militent contre les subventions, un instrument asymétrique taxe-plafond sans prix plancher est introduit et l’optimum est déterminé. Il apparaît que les instruments mixte et asymétrique sont particulièrement adaptés aux spécificités du changement climatique. D’autres possibilités de combinaison entre taxes et permis sont également examinées., Cournède Boris, Gastaldo Sylviane. Combinaison des instruments prix et quantités dans le cas de l’effet de serre. In: Économie & prévision, n°156, 2002-5. Economie publique, sous la direction de Michel Mougeot et Pierre Malgrange. pp. 51-62.

This article describes the investment behaviour of the wine producer in the Languedoc-Roussillon Region, as a result of pollution control legislation. It is based on an in-depth study of this sector, which has been conducted in close collaboration with the Water Agency of Rhône-Méditerranée-Corse. The analysis has been conducted by mobilising three different but complementary theoretical approaches. First we have considered the neo-classic framework, in which the producer/polluter is rational and informed. Secondly, we have applied the neo-institutional approach in order to highlight transaction costs and institutions. Finally, the evolutionary approach allows us to illustrate the problem of technological dynamics, innovation, and firm selection., Basée sur une étude approfondie du secteur en Languedoc Roussillon conduite en stricte collaboration avec l'Agence de l'eau Rhône-Méditerranée-Corse, cette communication présente la réaction, sous la forme d'investissements, de l'industrie vinicole languedocienne à la dynamique de la législation antipollution. L'analyse a été conduite en mobilisant trois référentiels théoriques différents mais complémentaires. Nous nous sommes d'abord placés dans le cadre néo-classique du comportement du producteur/pollueur rationnel et informé. Dans une seconde étape nous avons mobilisé l'approche néo-institutionnaliste en termes de coûts de transaction et d'institutions. Finalement l'approche évolutionniste éclaire la question de la dynamique technologique, de l'innovation et de la sélection des firmes., Farolfi Stefano, Montaigne Etienne. La politique environnementale dans l'industrie vinicole méridionale - le cas de la dépollution des eaux résiduaires. In: Revue d'économie industrielle, vol. 96, 3e trimestre 2001. pp. 81-104.

Sharecropping as a partnership. the a medias contract in the sierra madre oriental - Mexico - Sharecropping is usually explained by a trade-off between tenant's risk aversion and incentives (standard Principal-Agent approach) or between agency costs under various market imperfections, and with risk-neutral agents (transaction costs approach). This Mexican case-study illustrates a situation where contractual rationales refute the standard Principal-Agent model and where share- cropping can be analyzed as a resource pooling device, but without any major role given to moral hazard in contractual choice. In this situation, sharecropping features a partnership rather than agency relationships., Le recours au métayage est usuellement expliqué par un arbitrage entre aversion au risque et incitation du tenancier (approche Principal-Agent standard) ou entre coûts d'agence dans une situation d'imperfection des marchés autres que le marché de la terre, avec des acteurs neutres vis-à-vis du risque (approche par les coûts de transaction). Cette étude des contrats agraires au Mexique illustre une configuration où les logiques contractuelles infirment le modèle Principal-Agent standard et conduisent à analyser le métayage comme un dispositif de mise en commun de ressources dans un contexte d'imperfection des marchés, sans accorder de rôle central à l'aléa moral dans les choix contractuels. Dans la situation étudiée, le métayage relève du partenariat et non d'une relation d'agence., Colin Jean-Philippe, Bouquet Emmanuelle. Le métayage comme partenariat. L'arrangement a médias dans la Sierra Madré orientale. In: Économie rurale. N°261, 2001. pp. 77-92.

Cotton supply response to price and non-price incentives in Togo: an error correction model - The promotion of the cotton sector through incentives policies in Togo focuses mainly on price policies. Based on 1966-1995 time series data, the supply response functions were estimated for two main cotton producing zones in Togo. First the results indicate that price policies have not positively influenced cotton supply before and during Structural Adjustement Programmes (sap). Cotton and maize that are complements before sap become substitutes during sap and in the long run. Conversely cotton and sorghum- millet remain complements before, during sap and in the long run. Second the non price factors such as investment have positively influenced cotton supply before and during sap in both producing zones before and during sap. Policy makers should incorporate both factors with greater emphasis on the non price factors in future cotton policies design in Togo., Les mesures d'incitation du coton au Togo durant les Programmes d'ajustement structurel (pas) concernent surtout l'accroissement des prix au producteur. À partir d'une estimation économétrique de l'offre du coton, les facteurs prix et non- prix apparaissent comme des déterminants importants. D'une part, les mesures d'incitation par les prix n'ont pas été favorables au secteur cotonnier avant et durant les PAS malgré la rigidité à la baisse de l'offre de coton. Le coton et le maïs, cultures complémentaires avant les PAS deviennent concurrentes durant les PAS dans les Régions maritime et des plateaux alors qu'il est complémentaire au mil-sorgho dans les Régions centrale, Kara et Savanes avant et durant les PAS. D'autre part, les facteurs non-prix notamment l'investissement ont eu en général des effets favorables sur l'offre de coton dans les deux zones de production avant et durant les PAS. Il convient donc d'agir à la fois sur les deux facteurs avec un accent particulier sur les facteurs non-prix dans l'élaboration des politiques de relance du secteur cotonnier au Togo., Koffi-Tessio Egnonto. Incitations et offre du coton au Togo. Une estimation économétrique. In: Économie rurale. N°257, 2000. pp. 78-88.

Olivier Favereau and Pierre Picard The economic approach to contracts : Unity or diversity ? Since the mid-1970s, neoclassical economic analysis has gradually concentrated on the contract as the prototypical form for regulating transactions. The key notions of the economic theory of contracts are presented by distinguishing between types of actors and the risks linked to asymmetrical situations with regard to information. The explanatory power of these notions is tested with examples from various fields. Several still unsettled questions limit the scope of the economic analysis of contracts : the method used, the status of time, and the way this theory incorporates the notion of organization., Depuis le milieu des années soixante-dix, l'analyse économique néo-classique s'est progressivement centrée sur le contrat comme forme prototype de régulation des échanges. Cet article présente les notions clés de la théorie économique des contrats en distinguant les types d'acteurs (le principal, l'agent) et les risques (sélection adverse, risque moral) liés aux asymétries d'information. Après avoir éprouvé la puissance explicative de ces notions à l'aide d'illustrations tirées de domaines divers, les auteurs montrent que de nombreuses questions, encore irrésolues, limitent la portée de l'analyse économique des contrats : méthode utilisée, statut du temps et intégration de la notion d'organisation par et dans la théorie économique., Favereau Olivier, Picard Pierre. L'approche économique des contrats : unité ou diversité ?. In: Sociologie du travail, 38ᵉ année n°4, Octobre-décembre 1996. Contrats et pratiques contractuelles. Approches pluridisciplinaires. pp. 441-464.

The often-claimed environmental and social benefits of forest certification remain to be empirically evaluated. Despite numerous publications on the impacts of tropical forest certification, virtually all are based on secondary sources of information and not on field-based measurements. This paper proposes an empirical research framework for a carefully designed field-based evaluation of the ecological, social, economic, and political impacts of tropical forest management certification taking into account location-specific contextual factors which shape certification outcomes. The paper also suggests that solid methodological quantitative and qualitative approaches be used to build proper counterfactuals on which to base the comparisons for inferring impacts, all informed by a thorough theory-of-change and through processes that bring stakeholders together. The proposed research framework represents a first step towards the design and future implementation of evaluation research in the context of tropical forest certification on a global basis. It is hoped the research framework proposed contributes to learning from past mistakes, building on lessons learned and enhancing decision-making towards the maintenance of forest values over the long term, and for the benefit of society as a whole. (Resume d'auteur)

In an evolutionary approach, classical economists understood sharecropping as a tenancy system imposed mainly by tenants' capital constraints. Later, the orthodox neoclassical economics has not been able to offer a satisfactory explanation of sharecropping. Since two decades, New Institutional economists have been analyzing the economic rationality of sharecropping in terms of risk, imperfect markets, asymmetrical information, and transaction costs., L'économie classique présentait le métayage, dans une perspective évolutionniste, comme un mode de faire-valoir rendu indispensable par le faible niveau d'accumulation de capital des tenanciers. Par la suite, l'approche néo-classique orthodoxe n'a pas pu apporter d'explication satisfaisante à l'existence du métayage. Depuis deux décennies, on assiste à un foisonnement d'analyses proposées par des tenants de la Nouvelle Economie Institutionnelle, qui appréhendent la rationalité économique du métayage au regard du risque, de l'imperfection des marchés, des asymétries informationnelles et des coûts de transaction., Colin Jean-Philippe. De Turgot à la nouvelle économie institutionnelle. Brève revue des théories économiques du métayage. In: Économie rurale. N°228, 1995. pp. 28-34.

En ligne sur http://www.cairn.info/load_pdf.php?ID_ARTICLE=REL_792_0045; International audience; L'innovation est devenue un facteur clé de la croissance économique. La question des incitations à l'innovation au sein des entreprises est donc primordiale. Dans ce papier, nous nous intéressons au type d'incitations monétaires reçues par les inventeurs au sein des entreprises avec une attention particulière à la mobilité inter-entreprise de ces derniers. Les résultats montrent un rendement salarial positif pour les inventeurs, celui-ci est plus important pour les inventeurs ayant connu une mobilité inter-entreprise, ce qui pourrait suggérer que les entreprises sont prêtes à payer les connaissances acquises par les inventeurs au sein des autres entreprises. Par contre, l'utilisation de stock-options comme incitation pour les inventeurs semble moins répandue dans les entreprises françaises que dans les entreprises étrangères.

Localisation : Centre de documentation P. Bartoli, UMR LAMETA, Montpellier (S WPL 2011-01); Safeguarding tropical rainforests is one of the most important challenges for the future, particularly to mitigate climate change. The international community has actively sought international policy solutions to curb deforestation in tropical countries. Debt-for-nature swaps and certification of sustainable forest management have been implemented by NGOs. Some states are currently negotiating the implementation of the REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanism, a North-South financial transfer to compensate countries for avoided deforestation. However, little is known about the efficiency of these instruments. We argue that they may have a double effect: an expected direct impact on deforestation linked to the conditionalities of instruments, and an indirect impact due to their feedback effects on macroeconomic variables, affecting in turn the drivers of deforestation. The second effect is often overlooked by policy makers. The objective of the paper is to disentangle the two effects for different categories of forest countries. We conducted a panel data analysis for the period 1990-2005 and show that cluster analysis of tropical forest countries would be more relevant if it were based on relative forest endowment. On the basis of econometric results, we can recommend differentiating policy instruments according to the relative forest abundance of each country. Debt reduction programs contribute to the reduction of deforestation in all countries. Countries with abundant forests are locked in a development pathway based on overexploitation of their forests making them less responsive to incentive measures. In countries with average forest endowment, we recommend output-based REDD, whereas in countries with low forest cover, either inputbased or output-based REDD mechanisms should be efficient.

(VF)Comparée aux firmes classiques, la gouvernance des banques fait preuve de nombreuses spécificités liées aux particularités de ce secteur. En effet, la gouvernance des banques se singularise par l’importance des mécanismes externes (comme la réglementation) aussi bien qu’internes (essentiellement à travers le rôle joué par le conseil d’administration) afin de discipliner le comportement du dirigeant pour qu’il agisse dans les intérêts des actionnaires. S’intéressant uniquement aux mécanismes internes de gouvernance, cet article propose une revue de la littérature des différents travaux s’interrogeant sur les systèmes de contrôle et d’incitation du dirigeant mis en place par le conseil d’administration au sein des banques.(VA)In comparison with industrial firms, bank governance is specific. Bank governance is made up of both external mechanisms such as banking regulation and internal mechanisms such as the board of directors. The objective of these mechanisms of governance is to discipline managers’ behaviour in order to satisfy shareholders’ interests. In this article, we only deal with the internal mechanisms of bank governance. We propose a survey of the incentive and control systems implemented by the board of directors of banks.

Dans les trois grands bassins forestiers tropicaux, des evolutions considerables des modes de gestion de la foret (mise en concession du domaine prive de l'Etat, percee de l'amenagement forestier, methodes d'exploitation a faible impact) ont eu lieu depuis les annees 1980, lorsque les problematiques forestieres sont devenues des sujets de preoccupation mondiale. Les principales lignes de debat, entre le Nord et le Sud, entre le monde de la conservation et celui du developpement, se sont egalement deplacees avec la montee en puissance de nouvelles formes de gouvernance, caracterisees par une plus grande implication des acteurs non etatiques dans les affaires forestieres. Alors que ces changements conduisent certains acteurs a opposer de nouveaux instruments - notamment les paiements pour services ecosystemiques - a d'autres, actuellement mis en oeuvre - notamment l'amenagement forestier -, nous arguons que les politiques forestieres devraient au contraire etre basees sur une complementarite entre ces differents outils. (Resume d'auteur)

L'actionnariat est l'une des formules de participation financière utilisées pour stimuler les efforts des salariés. Il leur permet de constituer un portefeuille de valeurs mobilières et d'acquérir, souvent dans des conditions avantageuses, des actions de la société qui les emploie. Mais il conduit les salariés à y assumer un double statut : d'apporteur de capital humain d'une part, d'apporteur de ressources financières d'autre part. Se pose alors de manière accrue le problème de la sauvegarde de leurs intérêts. Cet article s'intéresse aux conditions d'efficacité de la pratique de l'actionnariat, tant au niveau des attitudes et du comportement des salariés qu'à celui des performances individuelles et collectives. Il traite ensuite des incidences de cet actionnariat salarié sur le système de gouvernement des entreprises qui les adoptent, les droits attachés aux actions détenues par les salariés pouvant leur permettre d'exercer un contrôle effectif sur les décisions stratégiques de la firme, ou bien de servir les intérêts des dirigeants poursuivant une stratégie d'enracinement.

Economic instruments for environmental policy and polluter's technical choice. Wastewater abatement in the wine industry Winery wastewater pollution can be reduced by a Water Agency through economic instruments such as taxes and subsidies. According to the «efficiency without optimally» approach, which aims at reaching a sub-optimal environmental objective at the lowest cost to Society, these instruments should act as an incentive for firms to adopt the best available pollution control technology. As there exists little knowledge of pollution damage functions, the computation of the water agencies' pollution charges is based on pollution abatement costs instead. In order to determine the level of charges, the Water Agency first computes the necessary expenses in terms of investment subsidies (for public and industrial treatment plants) and then determines the costs required to balance its budget. In defining its policy objectives, the Water Agency acts under conditions of information asymmetry. For instance, the Agency does not really know the pollution abatement cost at the sector level or for different kinds of technology. As a result, its policy, although effective because pushing the producers to invest, is inefficient : the cost to Society is higher than the lowest possible cost, and there is a poor redistribution of subsidies among the polluters. In order to reduce this asymmetry of information of the Water Agency (regarding pollution costs), we propose a sector-based approach. This paper studies the wine producers' response — his choice of a wastewater abatement technology — to the use of economic instruments defined by the Water Agency in the south of France. It is assumed that the producers/polluters behave rationally and minimise their pollution control costs. In the second part of the paper, we will look at the individual firm, underlying the importance of fixed costs for the choice of a wastewater control strategy. Consequently we will propose a modified model of polluter's behaviour in which fixed costs are considered and the underlying cost function follows the law of diminishing returns. The analysis of the individual choice between bearing pollution abatement costs (technical investment) and paying pollution costs (taxes) allows us to examine, in addition, the possibility of a partial treatment of wastewater., Cet article étudie le rôle de la structure des coûts dans les choix de dépollution d'une entreprise soumise aux incitations d'une agence publique en charge de préserver l'environnement. Les instruments économiques que cette dernière utilise sont les redevances ou les subventions aux investissements de dépollution. L'approche est appliquée au secteur vinicole du Languedoc-Roussillon. La prise en compte des coûts fixes oblige à s'écarter des modèles standard que propose l'économie de l'environnement et l'arbitrage entre coûts de dépollution et coûts de pollution permet d'expliciter la possibilité de choix de dépollution partielle., Farolfi Stefano, Tidball Mabel. Instruments économiques de politique environnementale et choix technique du pollueur. Le traitement des eaux résiduaires dans l'industrie de vinification. In: Cahiers d'Economie et sociologie rurales, N°64, 3e trimestre 2002. pp. 83-109.

Cet article vise à alimenter les réflexions ayant actuellement cours sur le bien fondé de ces formules de rémunérations, en portant un intérêt particulier aux pratiques observées, à leurs finalités et à leurs conséquences économiques, politiques, sociales, culturelles... finalement à leur dimension éthique. Se référant au courant téléologique de la pensée éthique, sont étudiées dans une première section les conséquences pour les actionnaires, qui en prennent la décision, de l'adoption de ces formules de rémunération. L'analyse est poursuivie du point de vue d'autres parties prenantes (dirigeants, salariés, prêteurs...).

Cet article présente une synthèse des travaux théoriques et empiriques consacrés aux stock-options. Il est consacré dans un premier temps aux avantages et inconvénients présumés de ces formules de rémunérations, au sujet des liens entre les plans d'options sur actions et la performance à long terme des firmes, les comportements des salariés (des cadres en particulier), la maîtrise possible de la masse salariale et les risques de dilution du capital. Dans un second temps, en sont précisées les modalités d'application selon les législations en vigueur tant en France qu'en Amérique du Nord, ainsi que stratégies pouvant être adoptées par les détenteurs des options. L'article dresse ensuite un bilan de la fréquence d'implantation des plans d'option sur actions et de leurs caractéristiques en France et en Amérique du Nord. Il poursuit et s'achève sur une synthèse des travaux de recherche ayant analysé l'efficacité et les conditions de succès des stock-options.

Cet article présente les justifications théoriques de l'utilisation des stock-options par les firmes et du comportement de leurs bénéficiaires, ainsi que les résultats d'études empiriques venant les étayer ou les réfuter. Il met en évidence les caractéristiques spécifiques (niveaux du prix d'exercice, de la diffusion des options...) des plans adoptés en France dans chaque contexte de référence (mise en place d'un contrat incitatif destiné aux managers, attribution d'une rémunération financièrement et fiscalement avantageuse). De nombreux travaux empiriques montrent que les stock-options peuvent contribuer à orienter le comportement des managers de manière à créer davantage de richesse actionnariale.This paper presents theoritical arguments and empirical results that help to understand why firms use stock-option plans as well as the behavior of the managers involved. It shows specific features (levels of the exercice price and of the diffusion of options...) of French stock-options plans in two contexts (adoption of an incentice performance-based compensation for managers, choice of a less costly compensation mecanism). A lot of empirical studies show that stock-option plans contribute to encourage managers to create more shareholder value.

International audience; L’objectif de cette recherche est d’analyser finement les freins et leviers pré-identifiés au covoiturage du quotidien, à partir de travaux préalables conduits sur les piliers de la confiance (Cahour et al 2018) et sur les sources de confort et d’inconfort psychologiques (Allinc et al 2018). Pour conduire cette analyse, nous limitons la pratique du covoiturage à : (1) un motif spécifique de déplacement (covoiturage domicile-travail et domicile-études) et (2) un type de pratique du covoiturage, abordée ici du seul point de vue du conducteur (comme résultat d’un report modal depuis l’autosolisme). Dans un deuxième temps, l’enjeu est de conduire une analyse spatiale différenciée selon des types de territoire de densités variables, en se concentrant notamment sur les espaces de densité intermédiaire, de type périurbain. Le concept développé est issu d’un travail d’observation systématique de solutions de mobilité émergentes (Le Boennec et al 2019). La déconstruction d’une sélection de solutions innovantes par une évaluation multicritères de leurs forces et faiblesses a conduit à l’identification de freins et leviers à l’usage. Dans un second temps ont été écrits des scénarios de mobilité contextualisés, limités à quelques types de territoire (relativement, toujours, à des niveaux spécifiques de densité) visant à prendre en compte les freins tout en exploitant les leviers à l’usage comme mécanismes d’incitation au changement de comportement. Cette démarche en deux étapes a conduit à la présente proposition de concept de ligne de covoiturage abordé du point de vue du conducteur. L’ambition de cette étude est de tester ce concept pour lever un maximum de freins à l’usage et de l’enrichir par des études qualitatives.La présente communication s’appuie sur la validation quantitative de cette proposition de concept. Notre hypothèse centrale consiste à tester, auprès de profils autosolistes identifiés (à partir de types d’incitations préétablies), le pouvoir incitatif des fonctionnalités du concept à la pratique du covoiturage domicile-travail (ou domicile-études).

Atelier sous-régional ENPARD Machreq, 2015/12/08-09, Le Caire (Egypte). Note introductive. Initiative ENPARD Méditerranée (Commission Européenne)