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The novel coronavirus epidemic is characterized by high rates of morbidity and relatively high mortality. Laboratory test results in patients include leukopenia, an increase in liver function tests and ferritin levels reaching hundreds, and sometimes thousands of units. These data remind us about the macrophage activation syndrome (MAC). Secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis syndrome, MAC, which pathogenesis is based on a defect in the mechanisms of T-cell cytotoxicity and decreased level of natural killer cells associated with the defect in the perforin-encoding gene as well as hyperproduction of a number of cytokines – interleukin (IL)-1â, tumor necrosis factor-á, etc. by T-lymphocytes and histiocytes, indirectly leading to the activation of macrophages and production of proinflammatory cytokines, in particular IL-6 hyperproduction. MAC is one of "hyperferritinemic syndromes". These disorders have similar clinical and laboratory manifestations, and they also respond to similar treatments, suggesting that hyperferritinemia may be involved in the overall pathogenesis and is characterized by elevated ferritin level and cytokine storm. Despite the fact that data on the immune and inflammatory status in patients with COVID-19 have only started to appear, it is already clear that hyperinflammation and coagulopathy affect the disease severity and increase the risk of death in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Hence, understanding the pathogenesis of the novel coronavirus infection can help in its early diagnostics and treatment.

Objective.Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a reactive form of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, which can complicate adult-onset Still disease (AOSD). We investigated AOSD clinical features at the time of diagnosis, to assess predictors of MAS occurrence. Further, we analyzed the outcomes of patients with AOSD who experience MAS.Methods.Patients with AOSD admitted to any Gruppo Italiano di Ricerca in Reumatologia Clinica e Sperimentale center were retrospectively analyzed for features typical of AOSD, MAS occurrence, and their survival rate.Results.Of 119 patients with AOSD, 17 experienced MAS (12 at admission and 5 during followup). Twelve patients with MAS at first admission differed from the remaining 107 in prevalence of lymphadenopathy and liver involvement at the time of diagnosis. In addition, serum ferritin levels and systemic score values were significantly higher in the patients presenting with MAS. At the time of diagnosis, the 5 patients who developed MAS differed from the remaining 102 in the prevalence of abdominal pain, and they showed increased systemic score values. In the multivariate analysis, lymphadenopathy (OR 7.22, 95% CI 1.49–34.97, p = 0.014) and abdominal pain (OR 4.36, 95% CI 1.24–15.39, p = 0.022) were predictive of MAS occurrence. Finally, MAS occurrence significantly reduced the survival rate of patients with AOSD (p < 0.0001).Conclusion.MAS occurrence significantly reduced the survival rate in patients with AOSD. Patients with MAS at baseline presented an increased prevalence of lymphadenopathy and liver involvement, as well as high serum ferritin levels and systemic score values. The presence of lymphadenopathy and abdominal pain was associated with MAS occurrence.

Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a rare, life-threatening disease in which early diagnosis and aggressive therapeutic strategy may improve the outcome. Due to its rarity, epidemiologic data are still lacking. Hyperferritinemia is frequently associated with MAS and might modulate the cytokine storm, which is involved in the development of multiple organ failure. In this paper, we investigated clinical data, treatments, and outcome of a homogeneous cohort of 41 adult MAS patients, complicating autoimmune rheumatic diseases. MAS-related death occurred in 17 patients (42.5%) during the follow-up, and older age and increased serum ferritin levels, at the time of diagnosis, were significantly associated with mortality. In conclusion, adult MAS is associated with high mortality rate. Some clinical features at diagnosis may be predictive of MAS-associated death.

Introduction: Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a severe, hyperinflammatory life-threatening syndrome, generally complicating different rheumatic diseases. Despite the severity of the disease, little is known about the pathogenic mechanisms and, thus, possible targeted therapies in the management of these patients. Areas covered: In this review, we aimed to update the current pathogenic knowledge of MAS, during rheumatic diseases, focusing mainly on immunologic abnormalities and on new possible therapeutic strategies. Expert commentary: The difficult pathogenic scenario of MAS, in which genetic defects, predisposing diseases, and triggers are mixed together with the high mortality rate, make it difficult to manage these patients. Although most efforts have been focused on investigating the disease in children, in recent years, several studies are trying to elucidate the possible pathogenic mechanism in adult MAS patients. In this context, genetic and immunological studies might lead to advances in the knowledge of pathogenic mechanisms and possible new therapeutic targets. In the future, the results of ongoing clinical trials are awaited in order to improve the management and, thus, the survival of these patients.

Background Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a rare, life-threatening disease in which early diagnosis and aggressive therapeutic strategy may improve the outcome [1]. Due to its rarity, epidemiologic data are still lacking. Hyperferritinemia is frequently associated with MAS and might modulate the cytokines storm the latter contributing to the development of multi-organ failure [2]. Objectives In the current study, we aimed to investigate clinical data, treatments, and outcome of adult MAS patients secondary to autoimmune rheumatic disease. Methods We retrospectively investigated clinical data, treatments, and outcome of 40 adult MAS patients secondary to autoimmune rheumatic disease. For all the MAS patients, the following clinical characteristics were recorded: age, gender, values of serum ferritin, erythsedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein (CRP), treatments, concomitant comorbidities, time of observation and outcome. Furthermore, we evaluated the correlations among these clinical features and MAS-associated death. Results Forty consecutive MAS patients, 15 men (37.5%) and 25 women (62.5%), whose mean age at diagnosis was 48.20±14.10 (mean±SD) were enrolled. Thirty out of 40 enrolled patients reported an history of adult onset Still9s disease (AOSD) (75%), 8 patients an history of systemic lupus erythematosus (20%), 1 patient an history of systemic sclerosis (2.5%), and 1 an history of ankilosing spondylitis (2.5%). Twenty-four out of enrolled patients (60%) did not show any comorbidity, and MAS was diagnosed during an AOSD flare. A severe infections was associated with MAS in the other patients. The laboratory data (mean±SD) reported a strong increase of inflammatory markers: i. serum ferritin 6842.70±7569.70 ng/mL; ii. ESR 63.87±30.19 mm/hr; iii. CRP 51.59±46.92. All the patients were treated with pulsed high dosage of methylprednisolone (1000 mg/daily for a maximum of 6 cycles) and 16 patients (16, 40%) received a combination therapy with: cyclosporin (13, 32.5%); methotrexate (6, 15%); intravenous immunoglobulin therapy (3, 7.5%); anakinra (3, 7.5%); tocilizumab (1, 2.5%). MAS-associated death occurred in 17 patients (42.5%). By using Cox regression proportional hazard model of survival of enrolled MAS patients, we observed that: older age [p=0.017, EXP(B): 1.305, 95%CI: 1.006–1.365], increased serum ferritin levels [p=0.001, EXP(B): 1.776, 95%CI: 1.030–2.728], increased CRP levels [p=0.029, EXP(B): 1.511, 95CI%: 1.021–1.651], higher number of comorbidities [p=0.01, EXP(B): 1.751, 95%CI: 1.142–2.2686], and the use biologics [p=0.015, EXP(B): 2.915, 95%CI: 1.233–6892] were significantly associated with MAS-associated death. Conclusions Adult MAS is still associated with higher mortality rate. Some clinical features at diagnosis, such as older age, increased serum ferritin and CRP levels and higher number of comorbiditis, may be associated with MAS-associated death. References Ramos-Casals M et al, Adult haemophagocytic syndrome. Lancet 2014; 383: 1503–16. Rosario C et al, The hyperferritinemic syndrome: macrophage activation syndrome, Still9s disease, septic shock and catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome, BMC Med 11, 2013,185. Disclosure of Interest None declared