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Context Grain-based diets result in lower starch utilisation compared with traditional diets with corn silage. The best use of yellow dent corn starch, in addition to increasing animal performance, can be obtained by the inclusion of an effective fibre source in grain-based diets and/or the use of more efficient genetic groups in a tropical feedlot. Aims We assessed productive responses of young Nellore (N) bulls and 1/2 Angus × 1/2 Nellore (AN) bulls fed whole shelled corn diets, with or without sugarcane bagasse (SB). Methods A completely randomised design in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (two genetic groups and two diets) was used. Twenty-eight young bulls (14 N and 14 AN) were fed diets containing 0 or 31.6 g of SB/kg DM in a feedlot. Key results The average daily gain and gain:feed ratio were not affected by the diets, but AN bulls showed greater average daily gain and gain:feed ratio than N bulls (P = 0.001 and P = 0.006, respectively). The genetic groups did not affect nutrient intake, but N bulls had greater (P = 0.016) DM digestibility than AN bulls. The consumption of DM, crude protein and digestible energy was not affected by the diets. The digestibility of neutral detergent fibre, crude protein and NFC was lower (P = 0.001) for the diet with SB. The neutral detergent fibre intake was greater (P = 0.001) in the diet with SB. The DM intake variation was smaller (P < 0.05) in diets with SB and for N bulls. Conclusions The inclusion of SB up to 31.6 g/kg DM in whole shelled corn diets did not affect the productive responses of young bulls. Crossbred bulls, despite expressing lower digestibility of some nutrients and larger DM intake variation, have greater productive potential compared with Nellore bulls in a tropical feedlot with whole shelled corn diets. Implications The use of crossbred young AN bulls in tropical feedlots is a viable alternative for increasing productivity and global meat production.

Yellow dent, high amylose and waxy corn were evaluated using lab-scale conventional, enzymatic (E-milling) and intermittent milling and dynamic steeping (IMDS) processes. The application of proteolytic enzyme (E-milling) and sulfur dioxide (Conventional milling and IMDS process) during kernel hydration and their effects on overall starch yields from three corn types were studied. Despite using lower amount of SO2 (600 ppm) and shorter steeping duration (66.8%), E-milling yielded the highest amount of starch for yellow dent, high amylose and waxy corn (71.4%, 60.1% and 66.9% (db), respectively). The use of proteolytic enzyme during steeping resulted in 26.1% points higher starch yield for high amylose corn. In conventional wet milling process, the highest starch yields were obtained from yellow dent corn and the lowest from high amylose corn, the values being 70.1% and 46.2% (db), respectively. Similarly, highest starch yield (69.5%, db) was obtained from yellow dent corn from the IMDS process. Steepwater absorption for high amylose corn was on average 37.7% greater than the other two corn types for conventional process and 34.6% greater for the modified processes. Modified wet milling protocols with shorter steeping durations and requiring lesser amounts of SO2 can be used to efficiently process different corn mutants.

The research was carried out with the aim to investigation the effects on grain yield and some seed characteristics of leaf, tassel removal and together treatments in maize during 2018 and 2019 years. The experiments were set up according to a Randomized Complete Block Design in a split-plot arrangement with three replicates, where cultivars were in the main plots while the practices were in subplots within the main plots using Bora (dent corn) and Karadeniz Yildizi (flint corn) maize cultivars. Effect on yield and seed characteristics of leaf (LR) and tassel removal (TR) and leaf x tassel removal interaction (LRxTR) were positive in both cultivars. The highest seed width (5.25 and 5.58 mm, respectively), seed length (9.89 and 10.21 mm, respectively), seed number per ear (642.2 and 669.6 number, respectively), 1000 grain weight (412.9 and 416.6 g, respectively), hectoliter weight (74.9 and 75.2 kg, respectively) and grain yield (1268.3 and 1334.8 kg da-1, respectively) were determined from the LRxTR interaction on dent corn in both years. However, YS+UA and UA treatments were included in the same statistical group. Generally, the lowest yield and seed characteristics were recorded in control treatment. The tassel removal treatment could be recommended due to its positive effects on yield and seed characteristics.

Corn is the most cultivated cereal plant in the world after wheat and rice. Grain yield of corn depends of genetic factors but the application of various nutrients to the soil is also effective for increasing yield. Vermicompost is used for increasing grain yield at the some plants recently. Worm fertilizer which is known as vermicompost is an organic fertilizer which fertilizer is digested by worms and converted into fertilizer. Vermicompost includes all enzymes, soil antibiotics, vitamins, growth hormones and humic substances for plant growth. In this study, it was aimed to determine the effects of various levels of vermicompost on the yield and some characteristics of corn plant. The study was conducted in 2017 growing season of Harran Plain second crop conditions. In the study, DKC-6120 corn variety was used as plant material. Different levels of vermicompost were applied as a supplementary to standard inorganic fertilizer. Vermicompost dosages were 0, 50, 100, 150, 200 kg da-1. The research was conducted according to the randomized complete block design with three replicates. Row spaces were 70 cm and intra row space was 20 cm. Seeds sown in 2-4 cm depth. Each parcel was built from 14 m2. In the study, hectoliter weight, ear weight, ear diameter, ear length, grain numbers of ear and grain yield values were determined. The highest hectoliter weight (80.37 g), ear weight (302.67 g), ear length (23.33 cm), grain number of ear (802.47 number) and grain yield (976.67 kg da-1) values were obtained from 200 kg da-1 vermicompost applications while the lowest values were seen at control parcels (77.87 g, 260 g, 21.79 cm, 710.27 number, and 895.24 kg da-1, respectively). Variance analysis was made with obtained data and the differences between the averages were compared according to the LSD test.

The nutritive value of starch, the major source of dietary energy in pigs, varies depending on its susceptibility for digestion. The botanical origin of starch determines starch structure, and therefore, digestibility. To compare digestibility of starch, fiber, gross energy (GE), crude protein, and amino acid (AA), and to characterize undigested starch of grains in growing pigs, seven ileal-cannulated barrows (initial body weight, 30 kg) were fed six diets containing 96% of one of six test ingredients (three pulse grains: zero-tannin faba bean, green field pea, or mixed-cultivar chickpea; three cereal grains: hulled barley, hard red spring wheat, or hybrid yellow, dent corn), or a N-free diet in a 7 × 7 Latin square at 2.8 × maintenance digestible energy. Grain samples were ground with a hammer mill through a 2.78-mm screen. Amylose content ranged from 29% to 34% for pulse grains and from 22% to 25% for cereal grains. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in cereal (94% to 97%) than pulse grains (85% to 90%) and was lowest (P < 0.05) in faba bean (85.3%) followed by field pea (87.2%) and chickpea (90.1%). However, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of starch of all tested grains was close to 100%. Apparent hindgut fermentability (AHF, as ATTD − AID) of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in pulse grains (9.9% to 15%) than cereal grains (3.3% to 4.8%). The AHF of total dietary fiber tended to be the greatest (P < 0.10) for corn (43.5%) and lowest for wheat (25.3%). The AHF of GE was greater (P < 0.05) in pulse grains (17% to 20%) than in cereal grains (9% to 11%) and resulted in greater (P < 0.05) digestible energy (DE) contribution from hindgut fermentation for pulse grains than cereal grains (0.9 vs. 0.5 Mcal/kg). Wheat had the greatest standardized ileal digestibility of total AA (90.2%; P < 0.05). Confocal laser scanning microscopy images revealed that 20% to 30% of starch granules of pulse grains were entrapped in protein matrixes. In scanning electron microscopy images, starch granules were larger in faba bean and field pea than cereal grains. Digesta samples revealed pin holes and surface cracks in starch granules of corn and wheat, respectively. In conclusion, hindgut fermentation of starch and fiber was greater in pulse grains than cereal grains resulting in a greater DE value despite lower ileal DE for pulse grain than cereal grains. Defining the digestible and fermentable fractions of starch may enhance the accuracy of equations to predict the net energy value of these feedstuffs.

Fungal species of morel (genus Morchella) have recently been found to form a symbiotic relationship with grasses. Our previous study documented that M. crassipes from Shaanxi, northwest China, increased growth of sweet corn Zea mays var. saccharata and suppressed Fusarium infections. In the present study, we examined the effect of M. crassipes inoculation on dent corn, Zea mays var. indentata cv. Plant growth response indexes and variables and soil variables were used to demonstrate how M. crassipes inoculation stimulates maize growth. Three suspensions of M. crassipes mycelium (50, 100, 150 mL) were inoculated into Zea may var. indentata. The results showed that M. crassipes inoculation significantly affected growth of all the inoculated maize plants and influenced some variables and indexes that are related to tissue specificity and dose dependence. Soil moisture, available K and P accumulation by M. crassipes were affected in inoculated plants and resulted in growth enhancements that were equal to that of the plants treated with urea. Our findings reveal that inoculation with M. crassipes had a positive effect on maize yield, making the crop system more sustainable. Thus M. crassipes has the potential to become a supplement or an alternative to urea fertilizers.

In this investigation the potential of micro-Raman spectroscopy, coupled to a simple, standard chemometric method (principal component analysis, PCA), as a fast, cheap, field method to investigate maize kernel components (endosperm, germ and peel) is demonstrated. Particular emphasis was given to the determination of the relative protein and amylose/amylopectin contents in maize endosperm of yellow dent and purple flint corn species, the two major maize varieties produced in Turkey. It is shown that the studied yellow dent corn type has a comparatively larger content of protein (3.4%) and a higher amylopectin/amylose ratio in the endosperm than the studied purple flint variety (a 11% decrease of amylopectin was found in going from the studied yellow dent to the purple flint corn), while the germs of the two species differ mostly by the presence of a slightly larger amount of starch in the case of the yellow dent corn, the oil composition of both species being identical within the resolution of the used method of analysis. The spectra of the maize peels reveal essentially the presence of cellulose and lignin in similar amounts in the two types of corn.

This paper presents the features of corn as raw material for groat industry. Corn is used in many segments of the food and processing industry. corn is processed for traditional food products — groats, flakes, flour, extruded foods, and other corn byproducts are widely used for the production of dry breakfast cereals, snacks, cereal bars. In terms of using of the advanced processing technologies, the industry produces starch, gluten, and germs. Corn germ is used to produce the high-value vegetable oil, as well as starch — for both food and non-food purposes. More than half (65%) of corn is used for feed purposes, 25% –technical purposes, and nearly 20% – for various types of food production. corn is processed for traditional food products — groats, flakes, flour, extruded foods, and other corn by-products are widely used for the production of dry breakfast cereals, snacks, cereal bars. For the colour, corn is divided into white and yellow types. According to the literature data analysis, yellow corn is more used in China, Argentina, Brazil, while white corn — in some countries of Asia, Latin America, and the Balkan countries. Depending on its morphological features, the corn kernelis divided into various groups, species and subspecies. In Ukraine corn kernel is classified into 8 types, with separately defined limitations on the content of the major crop in the batch, grains of other type, etc. Corn of І-VІІІ types with the quality indicators specified in the standard, for the production of food products. Flint and dent corn types are the most applied grain varieties in the industry, they are widely used in the production segment of food and feed products. Sweet corn is widely used as a vegetable crop in the food canning, food concentrates, starch and brewing industries due to its flavor properties. Popped corn is not only the most convenient raw material for the production of popcorn, but it also can be used as the raw material for the production of corn curls and dry breakfast cereals By analyzing the weight fraction of fat in kernels of different corn varieties we can note that the lowest number of fat is typical for popped corn (4.0%) and the largest – for sweet corn (9.1%); dent and flint corn have the same total fat number (4.5-4.9%).Test weight of corn types – popped corn ranges within 712-826 g/l, dent corn - 875-893 g/l, and flint corn - 768-786 g/l. The weight of 1000 kernels of corn depending on the varieties changes within 150-600 g.

Enogen Feed corn is a variety developed by Syngenta Seeds (Downers Grove, IL) that has been genetically modified to contain an α-amylase enzyme trait (SYT-EFC). Originally, Enogen feed corn was developed for the ethanol industry due to its reduction in viscosity of the corn mash, thus eliminating the need to add a liquid form of the α-amylase enzyme. However, there is a potential application for Enogen Feed corn to be used in livestock diets due to the increase in α-amylase enzyme potential to increase starch digestibility. A more common method of increasing starch digestibility in corn is to finely grind it to reduce particle size. This increases the surface area and allows for greater interaction with digestive enzymes. We hypothesized that pigs fed Enogen feed corn potentially could achieve similar gain:feed ratio (G:F) at larger particle sizes than conventional corn because of the differences in starch digestibility. In experiment 1, a total of 360 pigs (DNA 200 × 400, Columbus, NE; initially 6.6 ± 0.1 kg BW) were used with five pigs per pen and 12 pens per treatment. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with main effects of corn source (Enogen Feed corn or conventional yellow dent corn) and ground corn particle size (300, 600, or 900 µm). Overall, there was a corn source × particle size interaction (linear, P = 0.027) for G:F. There was no effect due to particle size when pigs were fed conventional yellow dent corn, but in pigs fed Enogen Feed corn, G:F increased with decreasing particle size. Neither corn source nor particle size affected (P > 0.05) overall average daily gain (ADG) or average daily feed intake (ADFI). In experiment 2, a total of 323 pigs (241 × 600; DNA, Columbus, NE; initially 50.0 ± 1.3 kg) were used with nine pigs per pen and six pens per treatment. Treatments were identical as experiement 1. Overall, corn source had no effect on finishing pig ADG, ADFI or G:F. For corn particle size, ADG and G:F increased (linear, P < 0.014) and ADFI decreased (P = 0.043) as particle size decreased. For stomach morphology, there was a tendency for a corn source × particle size interaction (P = 0.055) for keratinization score with keratinization increasing linearly (P = 0.001) as particle size of the corn decreased for yellow dent corn with no change in keratinization score as particle size decreased for Enogen Feed corn. In summary, reducing corn particle size improved G:F with no major differences observed between corn sources for overall pig performance.

Genetic modification of corn has enhanced the use of different corn hybrids in animal agriculture. Enogen Feed corn, developed by Syngenta Seeds (Downers Grove, IL), has potential for use in livestock diets due to increase α-amylase enzyme in the corn thus improving starch digestibility. In addition, the pelleting process also increases starch gelatinization which increases its digestibility by the pig, increasing growth rate and improving feed efficiency. Therefore, pelleting Enogen Feed corn might prove to provide a greater response in growth performance than conventional yellow dent corn. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of corn source and diet form on growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs. A total of 288 pigs (53.0 ± 0.5 kg) were used with eight pigs per pen and nine pens per treatment in a 72-d study. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial with main effects of corn source (Enogen Feed corn or conventional yellow dent corn) and diet form (meal or pellet). For overall (d 0 to 72) performance, no interactions between corn source and diet form were observed. There was a tendency (P < 0.10) for slightly improved average daily gain (ADG) and gain:feed ratio (G:F) for pigs fed conventional yellow dent corn compared to those fed Enogen Feed corn. For feed form, pigs fed pelleted diets had increased (P < 0.001) ADG and G:F compared to pigs fed meal diets. For carcass characteristics, pigs fed pelleted diets had increased hot carcass weight compared to pigs fed meal diets (P < 0.001). In summary, feeding pelleted diets to finishing pigs increased ADG and improved feed efficiency compared to those fed meal-based diets. There were no major differences between observed corn sources or interactions between corn source and diet form on growth performance.

Enogen Feed corn is a variety developed by Syngenta Seeds (Downers Grove, IL) that has been genetically modified to contain an α-amylase enzyme trait (SYT-EFC). Originally, Enogen feed corn was developed for the ethanol industry due to its properties for reducing the viscosity of its corn mash. There is potential application for Enogen Feed corn to be used in livestock diets due to the potential for the increase in α- amylase enzyme to increase the starch digestibility. Because of this, it may be possible to increase the particle size of ground Enogen Feed corn and maintain the same starch digestibility as finely ground conventional yellow dent corn. Therefore, our hypothesis was that an interaction between corn source and particle size would exist such that the performance of sows fed fine ground conventional yellow dent corn would be similar to sows fed coarse ground Enogen Feed corn. A total of 107 sows (Line 241; DNA, Columbus, NE) across four batch farrowing groups were used to evaluate sow and litter performance. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial with main effects of corn source (Enogen Feed corn or conventional yellow dent corn) and ground corn particle size (600 or 900 µm). From farrowing to weaning, there was a tendency for a corn source × particle size interaction (P = 0.065) in sow body weight (BW) change. Sows fed 900 µm Enogen Feed corn had decreased BW loss compared to sows fed other treatments, which were similar in weight loss. For sow average daily feed intake from farrowing to weaning, there was a corn source × particle size interaction (P = 0.048) with sows fed 900 µm conventional yellow dent corn having lower feed intake than the sows fed 600 µm conventional yellow dent corn, whereas sows fed 900 µm Enogen Feed corn had greater feed intake compared to the sows fed 600 µm Enogen Feed corn. There was a tendency for a particle size main effect (P < 0.10) for litter average daily gain (ADG) and total litter gain, with sows fed corn ground to 600 µm having increased litter ADG and total litter gain compared to sows fed corn ground to 900 µm. In summary, there were few differences in sow or litter characteristics among those fed Enogen Feed corn or conventional yellow dent corn. Reducing particle size of both corn sources tended to increase litter ADG and weaning weights.

Two separate experiments were carried out to evaluate the effects of incremental doses of 10 exogenous endo-acting α-amylase and exo-acting glucoamylase; 1LAT (bacterial α-amylase), 2AK, 3AC, 4Cs4, 5Trga, 6Afuga, 7Fvga, and 10Tg (fungal α-amylases, glucoamylases, and α-glucosidase), 8Star and 9Syn (fungal amylase-mixtures; experiment 1) and three exogenous proteases; 11P14L, 12P7L, and 13P30L (bacterial proteases; experiment 2) on in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) and in vitro starch digestibility (IVSD) of mature dent corn grain using a batch culture system. Incremental doses of the exogenous enzymes (0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.00 mg/g of dried substrate) were applied directly to the substrate (0.5 g of ground corn, 4 mm) in sextuplicate (experiment 1) or quadruplicate (experiment 2) within F57 filter bags, which were incubated at 39 °C in buffered rumen fluid for 7 h. Rumen fluid was collected 2–3 h after the morning feeding from three lactating dairy cows and pooled. Cows were consuming a midlactation total mixed ration (TMR; 1.60 Mcal/kg DM and 15.4%; net energy of lactation and crude protein, respectively). Three independent runs were carried out for each experiment. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design using run as the blocking factor. Dose was used as a fixed factor while run was considered a random factor. Linear, quadratic, and cubic orthogonal contrasts were also tested. In experiment 1, enzymes 2AK, 3AC, and 10Tg did not increase (P > 0.10) IVDMD and IVSD, whereas 0.25 mg of enzymes 1LAT, 5Trga, and 8Star increased (P < 0.01) IVDMD by 23%, 47%, and 62% and IVSD by 35%, 41%, and 58%, respectively, compared with the control. Enzymes 4Cs4, 6Afuga, 7Fvga, and 9Syn linearly increased IVDMD and IVSD (P < 0.01). Greatest increases in IVDMD (82.9%) and IVSD (85.9%) resulted with 1 mg of 6Afuga compared to control. In experiment 2, the lowest dose of exogenous proteases 11P14L and 12P7L increased (P < 0.01) IVDMD by 98% and 87% and IVSD by 57% and 64%, respectively, whereas the highest dose of 13P30L increased (P = 0.02) IVDMD by 44.8% and IVSD by 30%, relative to the control. In conclusion, IVSD and IVDMD were increased by one α-amylase, certain glucoamylases, and all proteases tested, with the glucoamylase 6Afuga in experiment 1 and the neutral protease 12P7L in experiment 2, increasing IVDMD and IVSD to the greater extents. Future in vivo studies are required to validate these findings before these enzyme additives can be recommended for improving the digestibility of mature dent corn grain.

This article is devoted to the study of transforming the chemical composition of corn grits at the different operation modes of degerminator in the dent corn processing. The experiment was conducted in industrial conditions on Skvyrskyi grain processing factory Ltd. during the processing of kernels using the degerminator of Bühler company. The operation modes of the degerminator were changed for 5 times during the experiment by means of the regulation of the gap between the shell and the drum. The study has shown that in terms of the low operation mode of the degerminator (the passage of the sieve Ø3.0 – 34.9%) there is a high output of fine fractions of the intermediate products, but the quality level of the overtail product of the degerminator is the best by fat content 1.81% and crude fiber content 6.72%, which indicates a minimal germ and bran content. In case of the increase of the gap (the passage of the sieve Ø3.0 – 12.4%), the output of fine fractions of the intermediate products, as well as the output of feed germ meal, declines, at the same time the overtail product has the high number of remnants of the germ and bran after the degerminator, as the fat content increases to 2.80% and crude fiber content increases to 9.82%. It was also found that the change of degerminator modes (increase in the passage of the sieve Ø 3.0 from 34.9 to 12.4%) leads to a decrease in the starch content from 79.36 to 75.43%, the protein content does not change. In order to provide the high quality of corn groats products, it is advisable to control the quality of the overtail products of the degerminator by the fat content. The fat content in the overtail product must not be higher than 2.2% – during the production of long shelf life products, and not higher than 2.5% – during the production of common corn products. For prompt regulation of the degerminator operation modes, it was offered to use release indicator, which can be determined by means of sieving of the 100 g of the overtail products using the Ø 3.0 sieve. In order to provide the fat content in groats within 0.6–0.8% and 0.8–1.0%, the general extraction of the fine products (release indicator) with the Ø 3.0 sieve use in the dent corn processing should vary within the range of 27–32% and 22–27%, respectively.

Ustilago maydis (DC) Corda, the causal agent of maize smut disease, can form enormous galls on cobs and cause significant yield losses under favorable conditions. In addition to yield losses, U . maydis may have an influence on the kernel quality in smutted cobs. The aim of this study was to determine presence of mycoflora on the cobs infected by U . maydis . A 2-year field experiment was conducted in Antalya Province. In the study, some maize cultivars belonging to various maize variety groups including dent corn, flint corn, sweet corn and popcorn were used as host plants. Inoculations were performed by injecting inoculum into ear silk of each cob of the plants in inoculated plots. For each treatment, control plots were also set up. When the kernels of cobs in control plots were mature enough to harvest, kernel samples in inoculated plots were taken from smutted cobs and investigated in terms of fungal flora. A total of 6 genera (Paecilomyces, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Acremonium, Fusarium, Rhizopus) were detected from the kernels in the smutted cobs. However, fre-quently isolated species were Aspergillus fumigatus , A . niger , A . parasiticus ( A . flavus ), Paecilomyces lilacinus , Penicillium citrinum , Fusarium solani , F . oxysporum and Rhizopus stolonifer . The most frequently isolated genus was Aspergillus (31.4%), while the lowest one was Penicillium (6.4%). The study showed that U . maydis may affect kernel quality of maize by harboring some fungal microorganisms in smutted cobs.

This study performs the techno-economic analysis of simultaneous ethanol production and anthocyanins extraction from colored corn in a dry grind facility. Comprehensive models for the conventional process using dent corn and modified process for colored corn including pericarp separation and anthocyanin recovery were developed in the SuperPro designer. Ethanol production for plants processing 1113.11 MT/day of corn, were estimated 42, 37 and 35.2 million gallon/yr for yellow, blue and purple corn, respectively. Capital investments ranged between $87.9 and $100 million, with a minimum investment for the conventional plant. Irrespective of higher capital investments and gross operating costs, ethanol production cost during purple corn processing was 42% less than that of yellow corn ($0.75 vs. $1.3/gal ethanol) because of high revenue from anthocyanin extract. Annual anthocyanins extract production from blue corn was only 26.5 MT compared to 879 MT for purple corn, and the process was not economically viable. The internal rate of return for the plant processing purple corn was 21.2%, compared to only 8.7% for a conventional plant using yellow dent corn. The use of purple corn in dry grind facilities can significantly improve the process economics and provide anthocyanin extract for use in the food industry.

Bifidobacterium sp. as microbes has potential role in fermentation of nixtamalized horse dent corn (Zea mays var. indentata) to degrade complex components into folic acid-rich corn biomass. Fermentation process on both nixtamalized yellow corn and white corn by Bifidobacterium brevis and Bifidobacterium bifidum as substrat of A, B, C and D were conducted at concentration of corn folic acid inoculum 40% (w/w) and 37 °C for 0, 8, 16, and 24 hours, respectively. Based on dissolved protein yielded, the experiment result showed that the best result of optimization in fermentation of both nixtamalized yellow corn (biomass B) and white corn (biomass D) was achieved by using inoculum of B. bifidum for 16 hours with composition of folic acid of 213.58 and 297.72 μg/mL, total solids of 21.14 and 21.07%, dissolved protein of 0.42 and 0.39 mg/mL, reducing sugars of 34.2 and 37.8 mg/mL, total sugars of 104.7 and 98.6 mg/mL, total acids of 0.37 and 0.44%, N-amino of 0.28 and 0.26 mg/g, and pH 4.82 and 4.49, respectively. In this condition, biomass of B. and biomass of D indicated domination of folic acid monomer with molecular weight (MW) 442.29 and 442.59 Dalton (Da.) at relative intensity 100%, particles size of 1115.1 nm and 1075.7 nm, and particle index of 0.827 and 0.849, respectively. Meanwhile, volatile compounds were dominated by 2,3-butanediol of 4.46 and 10.65%, palmitic acid of 7.63 and 8.26%, octadecenoic acid of 6.31 and 9.5%, lactic acid of 2.37% and 0.53%, respectively.

Drying temperature (DT) of corn can influence its nutritional quality, but whether this is influenced by endosperm hardness is not clear. Two parallel experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of 2 yellow dent corn hybrids with average and hard kernel hardness, dried at 3 temperatures (35, 80, and 120°C), and 2 supplementation levels of an exogenous amylase (0, 133 g/ton of feed) on live performance, starch and protein digestibility, and energy utilization of Ross 708 male broilers. Twelve dietary treatments consisting of a 2 × 3 × 2 factorial arrangement were evaluated using 3-way ANOVA in a randomized complete block design. In Experiment 1, a total of 1,920 male-chicks were randomly allocated to 96 floor pens, whereas 480 day-old chicks were distributed among 96 cages for Experiment 2. At 40 d, interaction effects (P < 0.05) were detected on BWG, FCR, and flock uniformity. Supplementation with exogenous amylase resulted in heavier broilers, better FCR and flock uniformity, only in the diets based on corn dried at 35°C. Additionally, interaction effects were observed on FCR due to kernel hardness and DT (P < 0.01), kernel hardness and amylase supplementation (P < 0.001), and DT and amylase supplementation (P < 0.05). Exogenous amylase addition to the diets based on corn with an average hardness improved FCR up to 2 points (1.49 vs. 1.51 g:g) whereas there was no effect of amylase on FCR of broilers fed diets based on corn with hard endosperm. Total tract retention of starch was increased (P < 0.05) in broilers fed diets based on corn with average kernel hardness compared to hard kernel. Corn dried at 80 and 120°C had up to 1.21% points less starch total tract retention than the one dried at 35°C. Supplementing alpha-amylase resulted in beneficial effects for broiler live performance, energy utilization, and starch total tract digestibility results. Treatment effects on starch characteristics were explored. Corn endosperm hardness, DT and exogenous amylase can influence the live performance of broilers. However, these factors are not independent and so must be manipulated strategically to improve broiler performance.

A collection of tetraploid sweet corn has been created on the basis of Baksanskaya Sugary var. (VIR catalog no. k-23426) obtained from dent corn tetraploid population MRPP-20 characterized with high grain yield of its ear. The variety has been created by inbreeding separate caryopses homozigotic for su1 and su2 genes (sugary endosperm); the caryopses were selected from MRPP-20 population with subsequent selection work for valuable traits during a number of generations. The collection includes over 300 specimens, among them there are genotypes promising for selection of foodcrop sweet corn. The research was conducted into principal phenotypic traits of the plant and chemical components of its caryopsis (protein, starch, oil). Analysis has shown that the chemical composition of grain varies widely. Structural phenotypic traits of vegetative organs differ mainly in the number of ears per plant, ear size, number of seeds per ear and the number of seed rows, caryopsis length, color of corncob and the caryopsis itself. Specimens with high (17.0–18.0 %) and low (11.0–12.0 %) protein content, high (9.0–10.0 %) and low (5.0–6.0 %) oil content, high (66.0–67.0 %) and low (60.0–61.0 %) starch content in caryopses were produced. Specimens have been obtained that combine high starch content with low oil content (C-1042) and vice versa (C-1114, C-1116), with low protein and oil content in a combination with high starch content (C-1180, C-1370). The research results allowed choosing starting material for selection work with hybrids of sweet corn to get predefined flavor properties.

Naturally-contaminated yellow dent corn containing 1600 μg total aflatoxin per kg was treated with 3% NaOH at 100°C for 4 min. After washing, the moisture was adjusted by autoclaving at 121°C and the product was deep fired at 196°C for 15 min to produce a corn snack. Samples were taken after each processing step. Aflatoxin levels and mutagenicity of acetone extractions of alkaline and acidified products were measured. There was over 99% destruction of the aflatoxin in the final product. Acidifying products after each stage and prior to analysis caused reformation as much as 18% of the original aflatoxin, however, the acidified final product showed no reformation at all. Mutagenicity determined by Salmonella typhimurium strains TA 98 and TA 100 decreased during processing. Mutagenicity of extracts of the final product was equal to that of the negative controls. The manufacturing process was effective in aflatoxin destruction and reduction of mutagenicity.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the DE and ME as well as the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and AA in corn fed to growing pigs. All corn was yellow dent corn collected from different areas in China. In Exp. 1, 60 crossbred barrows (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire; 40.7 ± 3.5 kg BW) were randomly allotted to 1 of 10 diets to determine the DE and ME of corns. Diets were formulated to contain 96.8% of 1 of the 10 corn samples and 3.2% of other microingredients. In Exp. 2, 11 crossbred barrows (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire; 30.5 ± 2.3 kg) fitted with a T-cannula at the distal ileum were assigned to a 6 × 11 Youden square design with 6 periods and 11 diets. Diets included a N-free diet based on cornstarch and sucrose and 10 test diets formulated with 96.6% 1 of the 10 corns as the sole source of AA. Chromic oxide (0.3%) was added to each diet as an indigestible marker for calculating the AA digestibility. On a DM basis, the starch, ether extract (EE), CP, NDF, and ADF contents of corns averaged 74.05% (69.98 to 78.59%), 3.83% (2.04 to 4.73%), 9.63% (7.74 to 10.43%), 10.80% (10.27 to 11.46%), and 2.27% (2.03 to 2.57%), respectively. The CV of EE, CP, and ADF was 22.59, 8.22, and 8.21%, respectively. The DE and ME of corns averaged 4,087 and 3,981 kcal/kg, respectively, and ranged from 3,999 to 4,161 kcal/kg and from 3,898 to 4,067 kcal/kg, respectively. The DE and ME values were positively correlated (P < 0.05) with the EE content. Optimal prediction equations of ME were ME = 940.35 + (0.72 × DE) + (21.88 × EE) (R2 = 0.94) or ME = 1,051.50 + (0.82 × DE) − (282.05 × ash) (R2 = 0.99). In Exp. 2, significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed in the SID of Arg, His, Phe, Ala, Pro, Cys, and Tyr. The SID of Lys (average 73.79%), Met (average 87.32%), and Thr (average 80.06%) ranged from 61.45 to 78.47%, from 74.09 to 90.91%, and from 79.19 to 85.79%, respectively. The standardized ileal digestible Met was positively correlated (P < 0.01) with the Met and CP contents. The obtained prediction equations were standardized ileal digestible Met = 31.34 + (3.43 × CP) + (116.04 × Met) and standardized ileal digestible Met = 104.92 + (294.71 × Met) − (7.03 × NDF). In conclusion, sources had an effect on the energy values and ileal digestibility of most AA in corn. The ME can be predicted by the DE combined with either the EE or ash content. The AA concentrations and SID of AA in corn varied largely.

Stewart's wilt reactions of 98 food-grade, white corn hybrids, 3 yellow dent corn hybrids, and 23 sweet corn hybrids and infection of kernels by E. stewartii were evaluated in 1998, 1999, and 2000. Stewart's wilt symptoms were rated from 1 (no appreciable spread of symptoms) to 9 (dead plants) following inoculation. The mean Stewart's wilt ratings for the food-grade, white corn and yellow dent corn hybrids were 1.9, 2.4, and 2.9 in 1998, 1999, and 2000, respectively. The mean Stewart's wilt ratings for the sweet corn hybrids were 3.8, 4.2, and 4.6 in 1998, 1999, and 2000, respectively. Hybrids with ratings less than 3 were classified as resistant. Hybrids with ratings between 3 and 4.5 were classified as moderate. Hybrids with ratings greater than 4.5 were classified as susceptible. Ears harvested from each row in 1998 and 1999 were assayed for E. stewartii using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based seed health test. Kernels from 16 hybrids were positive for E. stewartii in 1998. Kernels from 11 hybrids were positive for E. stewartii in 1999. Kernel infection by E. stewartii was affected considerably by the level of host resistance (i.e., reactions of seed parent plants). For hybrids classified as resistant, estimates of kernel infection were 0.024 and 0.0007% in 1998 and 1999, respectively. For hybrids with moderate reactions to Stewart's wilt, estimates of kernel infection were 0.19 and 0.07% in 1998 and 1999, respectively. For hybrids with susceptible reactions to Stewart's wilt, estimates of kernel infection were 11.6 and 7.8% in 1998 and 1999, respectively. Based on high levels of Stewart's wilt resistance in food-grade, white corn hybrids, and low rates of kernel infection by E. stewartii in resistant and moderate hybrids, there is an exceedingly low probability of introducing E. stewartii to areas where it does not occur by transmitting the bacterium in grain of the food-grade, white corn hybrids evaluated in this study. Although all of the kernels harvested in these experiments were produced as grain on open-pollinated F1 hybrids, the rates of kernel infection observed for hybrids with resistant, moderate and susceptible reactions to Stewart's wilt are applicable to seed produced on inbred lines with equivalent Stewart's wilt reactions.

Kleinschmidt, C. E., Clements, M. J., Maragos, C. M., Pataky, J. K., and White, D. G. 2005. Evaluation of food-grade dent corn hybrids for severity of Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin accumulation in grain. Plant Dis. 89:291-297. Fumonisins produced by Fusarium verticillioides (syn = F. moniliforme) and F. proliferatum have been associated with potentially serious toxicoses of animals and humans. Thus, hybrids with low fumonisin accumulation in grain will be valuable for the production of corn-based human food products. We evaluated 68 food-grade dent corn hybrids for severity of Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin accumulation in grain in inoculated trials in Urbana, IL in 2000 and 2001. Our inoculation technique was successful in initiating fumonisin accumulation that allowed discrimination among hybrids. We identified several hybrids that could have acceptable levels (

A one way reproductive barrier exists between most popcorn varieties and dent corn varieties grown in the United States. This barrier is predominantly controlled by thega1locus. Using data from a diverse population of popcorn accessions pollinated by a dent corn tester, we found that the non-reciprocal pollination barrier conferred byga1is more complex than previously described. Individual accessions ranged from 0% to 100% compatible with dent corn pollen. Using conventional genotyping-by-sequencing data from 371 popcorn accessions carryingGa1-s, seven significant modifiers of dent pollen compatibility were identified on five chromosomes. One locus may either be a nonfunctionalga1allele present within popcorn, or second necessary gene for the reproductive barrier in genetic linkage withga1, while the other modifiers are clearly genetically unlinked. The existence ofga1modifiers segregating in a popcorn genetic background may indicate selective pressure to allow gene flow between populations, which should be incorporated into future models of the impact of genetic incompatibility loci on gene flow in natural and agricultural plant populations.

Anthocyanins can be used as naturally sourced colors in food and cosmetics. Colored corn cultivars like purple corn and blue corn are rich in anthocyanins. Potential utilization of coproducts in corn processing industry makes colored corns economically attractive for anthocyanin extraction. There is lack of information on various processing characteristics of colored corn cultivars. In this study, wet-milling, dry-milling and dry-grind characteristics of purple and blue corn were compared against yellow dent corn using 1 kg lab scale procedures to test whether these can be effectively used in industry. In wet-milling, purple and blue corn starch yields were 63.4 and 61.5% (db) as compared to 70.1% (db) for yellow dent corn. In dry-milling, total endosperm yield was largest for yellow dent corn and minimum for blue corn at 84.9 and 77% (db), respectively. All the corn types had softer endosperm. In dry-grind process, final ethanol concentration was largest for yellow dent corn at 17.2% (v/v) and lowest for blue corn 14.3% (v/v). DDGS yield was highest for purple corn 41.6% (db) and lowest for yellow dent corn 32.9% (db). Purple and blue corn can potentially be used in all the three milling processes with yield differences being offset by health promoting properties of various coproducts recovered. This study will provide a valuable insight about various milling properties of purple and blue corn to the processing industry.

Four trials were conducted to evaluate the effects of flint corn processing and the replacement of corn with citrus pulp (CiP) in diets for Nellore feedlot cattle. In a 103-d finishing trial, 216 Nellore bulls (350 ± 24 kg initial BW) were used in a randomized complete block design with a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments. Factors included 2 processing methods, either ground corn (GC) or steam-flaked corn (FC), with CiP replacing each corn type at 4 levels (0, 25, 50, and 75% of DM). All diets contained 12% sugarcane bagasse and 88% concentrate (DM basis). Treatments were also evaluated in metabolism trials, in which 10 ruminally cannulated Nellore steers (389 ± 37 kg) were assigned to 2 independent but simultaneous 5 × 5 Latin squares, each using 1 method of corn processing (GC and FC). Interactions ( < 0.05) between corn processing and CiP inclusion level were observed for final BW, DMI, ADG, G:F, and HCW. With FC-based diets, added CiP linearly decreased final BW ( = 0.04), whereas with GC-based diets, added CiP quadratically increased final BW ( = 0.002). With FC-based diets, the inclusion of CiP linearly increased DMI ( = 0.03) and linearly decreased ADG ( = 0.03) and G:F ( = 0.001). Increasing CiP in GC-based diets quadratically increased DMI ( = 0.001), ADG ( = 0.005), and HCW ( = 0.003). In FC-based diets, CiP inclusion had no effect on HCW ( = 0.21). Dressing percent, LM area, and 12th-rib fat were not affected by diet ( ≥ 0.05). For steers fed GC diets, CiP inclusion in the diet quadratically decreased the molar proportion of isovalerate ( = 0.001) but linearly increased ruminal butyrate ( = 0.006). No differences ( ≥ 0.16) were observed for total VFA concentrations, acetate:propionate ratio, and ruminal NH-N as CiP replaced GC. For steers fed FC diets, the molar proportion of acetate linearly increased ( = 0.002) whereas the proportion of propionate was linearly decreased ( < 0.001), resulting in a linear increase ( = 0.001) in the acetate:propionate ratio. Replacing corn with CiP linearly reduced NEm ( = 0.001) and NEg ( < 0.001) of FC-based diets but did not affect ( = 0.15) NE values of CG-based diets. Steam flaking flint corn improved cattle performance in this trial more than has been reported for dent corn in the published literature.

Two experiments were conducted to determine effects of extrusion on energy and nutrient digestibility in cereal grains fed to growing pigs. One source of yellow dent corn, one source of hard red winter wheat, and one source of sorghum were ground to approximately 300 microns and each source of grain was divided into 2 batches. One batch of each grain was extruded, whereas the other batch was used without further processing. In Exp. 1, 7 diets were formulated to determine ileal starch and amino acid (AA) digestibility in the grains. Three diets contained the non-extruded grains and 3 diets contained the extruded grains. The last diet was an N-free diet that was used to determine basal endogenous losses of AA from the pigs. Seven growing barrows (initial body weight = 14.2 ± 0.9 kg) had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum and were allotted to a 7 × 7 Latin square. Each experimental period lasted 7 days with the initial 5 days being the adaptation period and ileal digesta were collected on days 6 and 7. Results indicated that extruded grains had greater (P

Instant porridge as a result of formulation using natural folic acid fortificant has potential use as complementary feeding (CF). This experiment activity aims to find out folic acid concentration in the best fortificant in preparation of formula of instant porridge on composition, characteristic of folic acid monomer and particle size. This experiment activity performed by using fortificants of A, B, C, and D were subsequently nixtamalized yellow dent corn (Zea mays var. indentata), fermented spinach (Amaranthus sp.) and mung beans (Phaseoulus radiatus) tempeh; nixtamalized yellow dent corn, fermented broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) and mung beans tempeh; nixtamalized white dent corn, fermented spinach, and mung beans tempeh; and nixtamalized white dent corn, fermented broccoli, and mung beans tempeh added to base formula of instant porridge with folic acid concentration in fortificants 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 600, and 800 µg/100 g (of base formula of infant porridge). The result of experiment showed that based on type of nixtamalized corn on dissolved protein, formulation optimization was achieved by using fortificants A and C at concentration of folic acid 600 and 400 µg/100 g (of base formula infant porridge). In this condition was yielded instant porridge A and C with compositions of folic acid 175.25 and 198.72 µg/mL, dissolved protein 2.09 and 1.98 mg/mL, total solids 93.12 and 97.53 %, total sugars 223.73 and 209.33 mg/mL, and reducing sugars 47.35 and 46.87 mg/mL, respectively. Compared without fortificant, this optimum condition increases dissolved protein 50.72 and 42.44 %, total sugars 22.72 and 31.03 %, and reducing sugars 74.21 and 72.44 %. Meanwhile, total solids in fortificant A decreases 4.29 %, and total solids in fortificant C increases 1.52 %. At optimum condition, identification on folic acid monomer in instant porridge using fortificants A and C were dominated by monomer with molecular weights (MWs) 442.3695 and 442.5903 Dalton (Da.). While, particle size distribution indicated particle size 1,060.6 and 1,075.2 nm with particle index (PI) 1.222 and 1.192, respectively.Instant porridge as a result of formulation using natural folic acid fortificant has potential use as complementary feeding (CF). This experiment activity aims to find out folic acid concentration in the best fortificant in preparation of formula of instant porridge on composition, characteristic of folic acid monomer and particle size. This experiment activity performed by using fortificants of A, B, C, and D were subsequently nixtamalized yellow dent corn (Zea mays var. indentata), fermented spinach (Amaranthus sp.) and mung beans (Phaseoulus radiatus) tempeh; nixtamalized yellow dent corn, fermented broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) and mung beans tempeh; nixtamalized white dent corn, fermented spinach, and mung beans tempeh; and nixtamalized white dent corn, fermented broccoli, and mung beans tempeh added to base formula of instant porridge with folic acid concentration in fortificants 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 600, and 800 µg/100 g (of base formula of infant porridge). The result of experiment showed that...

Corn is the main energy feed used in broiler chickens rations in most countries. In the literature, there are indications that high density corn segregated in densimetric table contains higher value of metabolizable energy than the corresponding fraction of low density, but the reasons are not clear. This study was conducted to determine the metabolizable energy of different types of corn, segregated in densimetric table, for poultry. The corn types were selected by the texture of grain (flint, semi-dent and dent) and were planted in the same area. Semi-dent grain corn was used as standard, and the flint and dent grains were segregated in a densimetric table to separate 25% of the total as high density and 25% as low density. The flint, semi-dent and dent corn and the high and low density fractions of flint and dent corn were used in a metabolism assay with broiler chickens from 20 to 29 days of age, with 9 replicates, to determine the Nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (MEn). The density of the different types of corn, measured as hectoliter weight, varied from 683 to 768 g/L for dent corn and from 778 to 802 g/L for the flint corn; the density of the unsegregated semi-dent corn was intermediate. MEn ranged from 3.109 to 3.194 kcal/g for dent corn and from 3.141 to 3.211 kcal/g for flint corn. MEn of the high density dent corn, 3.194 kcal/g, was higher (p

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses maize, also known as corn, which is grown throughout the world. The United States, China, Brazil, Argentina, India, France, and Indonesia are the main corn-producing countries. Corn of different types (flour corn, flint corn, dent corn, sweet corn, popcorn, waxy corn, and amylomaize) and color (ranging from white to yellow, red, and purple) is grown. Corn grain is composed of endosperm (82–83%), germ (10–11%), pericarp (5–6%), and tip cap (0.8–1.0%). The pericarp is the outermost layer that is characterized by high crude fiber content, mainly consisting of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. High-amylose corn is a good source of resistant starch (RS), which can be used in various food products for its health benefits. RS has been associated with improved cholesterol metabolism and reduced risk of type II diabetes and colon cancer. Various bioactive compounds with the health-promotion and disease-prevention properties present in fruits and vegetables have also been reported in corn. The purple-, blue-, and red-pigmented corn inhibits colorectal carcinogenesis in male rats and possesses antimutagenic and radical scavenging activities. These bioactivities have been associated with the presence of anthocyanins.

Nellore cattle are predominant in Brazil and appear to have poor performance when fed high-grain diets. In addition, most corn produced in Brazil is of the flint type, and the starch therein is more difficult to digest compared to that in dent corn hybrids. The aim of this study was to evaluate flint corn processing method (CPM) and dietary starch content for finishing Nellore bulls fed high-concentrate, corn-based diets. In this study, 112 Nellore bulls (initial BW 378.3 ± 21.28 kg) were fed twice daily using Calan gates or individual pens. The animals were used in a randomized complete block design with a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments. The experiment tested two CPM: high moisture corn (HMC) and finely ground dry corn (FGC) and dietary starch concentrations (DSC) of 300, 350, 400 and 450 g/kg DM, replacing citrus pulp with corn. Bulls were adapted to finishing diets over a period of 18 days and fed a total of 75 days (18 + 57 days). To determine fecal starch (FS) concentration, feces from each animal were sampled on day 47 of the feeding period. Bulls fed diets containing more than 300 g/kg DSC from HMC were more efficient than bulls fed 300 g/kg DSC as HMC; but gain:feed ratio (G:F) for bulls fed FGC did not differ (CPM × DSC; P = 0.04). Final BW and average daily gain (ADG) were not affected by CPM, but carcass G:F was greater for bulls fed HMC than for those fed FGC (P

One waxy and three regular yellow dent com hybrids were wet milled by using two scales of laboratory (modified 100-g and 1-Kg) procedures and a pilot-plant (10-kg) procedure. The modified 100-g and I-Kg laboratory procedures gave similar yields of wetmilling fractions. Starch yields and recoveries were significantly lower for the pilot-plant ' Journal Paper 16,892 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames. Research project 0178 supported by the Center for Crops Utilization Research, the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experimental Station, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. ^ Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, lA SOOl 1. ^ Professor, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, and Professor-in-Charge, Center for Crops Utilization Research, Iowa State University, Ames, lA 50011; and to whom correspondence should be addressed. * Research Geneticist, USDA-ARS, Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, lA 50011. ^ Laboratory Research Technician m. Center for Crops Utilization Research, Iowa State University, Ames, lA 50011. ''Professor, Department of Statistics, Iowa State University, Ames, lA 50011.

Current procedures for malathion residue extraction from grain are typically time-consuming and expensive. In this study, a method was developed to extract malathion from com in an accurate, rapid and inexpensive manner, using ethyl acetate as the solvent. Yellow dent corn, dried to 12% moisture content, was ground, spiked with 10 ppm malathion and placed in separate regular pint Ball® mason jars. Fifty ml of ethyl acetate were measured into each pint jar containing the treated ground-grain and Ball® canning flats and rings were used to seal each jar. Sealed jars were shaken vigorously (275-285 oscillations/min) for 15 minutes on a Fisher-Kahn® shaker. The ethyl acetate was then decanted from each jar and filtered through 70 g of sodium sulfate held in a Whatman® no. 1 paper filter placed in a glass funnel. The filtrate was collected in a 500-ml round-bottom flask. This procedure was completed a second time using an additional 50 ml of ethyl acetate. The extract, consisting of all filtrates and rinses, was then concentrated to ca. 10 ml and then brought to a final volume of 50 ml in a volumetric flask by adding ethyl acetate. Malathion residues in extracted samples were detected by a thermonic specific nitrogen-phosphorus detector on a Varian®3740 gas chromatograph. This detector allowed injection of samples that contained high levels of pigments and other plant compounds. The rapid extraction method described in this paper is 99% effective

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of extrusion on energy and nutrient digestibility in corn, wheat, and sorghum fed to growing pigs. In Exp. 1, 6 diets based on raw or extruded sources of each grain and an N-free diet were formulated. Seven barrows (14.2 ± 0.9 kg) had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum and were allotted to a 7 × 7 Latin square. Ileal digesta were collected for 2 d after 5 d of adaptation. Results indicated that extruded grains had greater (P < 0.001) apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch than non-extruded grains. Extrusion increased standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of all AA except Pro in corn, but SID of AA in wheat and sorghum was not affected by extrusion (Table 1). In Exp. 2, 48 barrows (15.1 ± 3.7 kg) were allotted to 6 diets based on each of the 6 grains. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and feces and urine were collected quantitatively for 5 d after 5 d of adaptation. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of GE increased by extrusion of corn or sorghum, but that was not the case for wheat (interaction, P < 0.001). The ATTD of NDF was reduced by extrusion of wheat, but not of corn or sorghum (interaction, P < 0.001). Extrusion reduced (P < 0.05) the ATTD of ADF in all grains. Values for ME were greater in extruded corn and sorghum compared with non-extruded grains, but ME in wheat was not affected by extrusion (interaction, P < 0.001). In conclusion, extrusion of corn, wheat, and sorghum increased AID of starch and SID of all indispensable AA. The ME in corn and sorghum was also increased.

Performance responses to steam flaking flint corn as well as to the addition of roughage to finishing diets composed of whole flint corn were evaluated. Ninety-six Nellore bulls were stratified by initial BW (373 ± 11 kg) and randomly allotted to 16 feedlot pens (6 bulls/pen) in a randomized complete block design with 4 replicates/treatment. Dietary treatments for the 86-d feeding trial consisted of (DM basis) 1) 78.8% steam-flaked flint corn with 6% sugarcane bagasse and 0.20% urea, 2) 85% whole flint corn without sugarcane bagasse, 3) 81.9% whole flint corn with 3% sugarcane bagasse and 0.10% urea, and 4) 78.8% whole flint corn with 6% sugarcane bagasse and 0.20% urea. All diets contained 15% (DM basis) of a pelleted protein, mineral, and vitamin supplement. Compared with whole flint corn grain, flaking of flint grain decreased ( 0.47), it increased energy content of the diet ( 0.47) on G:F or on observed energy content of the diet. In summary, steam flaking of flint corn when fed in diets containing 6% sugarcane bagasse decreased DMI by 17% but increased G:F by 20% and NEg of corn calculated from feedlot performance by 23%; these responses markedly exceed those typically observed with dent corn grain. Moreover, adding 3% sugarcane bagasse to a flint whole corn grain diet optimized feedlot performance of Nellore bulls.

Dent corn Andisol at the Hokkaido University Shizunai Livestock Experimental Farm actively emits nitrous oxide (N2O). In order to screen for culturable and active N2O emitters with high N2O emission potential, soft gel medium containing excess KNO3 was inoculated with soil suspensions from farm soil samples collected at different land managements. Dominant bacterial colonies were searched for among 20 of the actively N2O-emitting cultures from post-harvest soil and 19 from pre-tilled soil, and all isolates were subjected to the culture-based N2O emission assay. Ten active N2O-emitting bacteria, four from post-harvest soil and six from pre-tilled soil, out of 156 isolates were identified as genus Pseudomonas by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. These N2O emitters showed clear responses to NO3(-) within a neutral pH range (5.5-6.7), and accelerated N2O production with 1.5-15 mM sucrose supplementation, suggesting the production of N2O during the denitrification process. However, the negative responses of 6 active N2O emitters, 3 from post-harvest soil and 3 from pre-tilled soil, out of the 10 isolates in the acetylene-blocking assay suggest that these 6 N2O emitters are incomplete denitrifiers that have lost their N2O reductase (N2OR) activity. Although the PCR assay for the denitrification-associated genes, narG and nirK/S, was positive in all 10 Pseudomonas isolates, those negative in the acetylene-blocking assay were nosZ-negative. Therefore, these results imply that the high N2O emission potential of dent corn Andisol is partly attributed to saprophytic, nosZ gene-missing pseudomonad denitrifiers.

Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky), the maize weevil, is a serious pest of economic importance in stored products in tropical and subtropical countries; infestation often starts in the field, but serious damage is done during maize storage. This study evaluated S. zeamais infestation on seven varieties of maize. Seven commercial maize varieties (white dent, yellow dent, orange flint, Indian flint, white popcorn, yellow popcorn and sweet corn), two temperature conditions (10 and 27 °C) and three storage times (30, 60, and 90 d) were used. The moisture contents of all maize samples were adjusted to 15.5 ± 0.5% (wet basis) prior to initiating storage trials. Numbers of live weevils, – seed damage, weight loss, and weight of powder produced were assessed at the end of each storage time. As expected, severe damage was observed at 27 °C and 90 d for all maize varieties. Exponential growth rates of S. zeamais were observed in almost all maize varieties. Among seven varieties evaluated, orange flint corn, yellow and white popcorn show resistance to S. zeamais. Nevertheless, sweet and dent corn were most susceptible to S. zeamais -infestation - Higher numbers of live S. zeamais were observed on Indian flint corn, sweet corn and yellow dent corn. Consequently, there was higher seed weight damaged and weight loss. Further, seed damaged, percentage seed weight loss and weight of powder produced was significantly and positive correlated with number of live S. zeamais (r = 0.91, P

Two 18-d studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of drought stress and carbohydrase enzyme inclusion on broiler performance and nutrient digestibility in either yellow dent corn or sorghum. Both experiments employed a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with 2 growing environments (normal or stressed), and carbohydrase enzyme cocktail (yes or no). In each experiment, 256 chicks were randomly assigned with 8 birds/pen and 8 replicates/treatment. Enzyme inclusion did not affect any variable in either experiment, and environment did not alter 18-d BW, mortality, or the digestibility of DM or CP. In Experiment 1, birds consuming normal corn had improved FCR compared to those fed drought-affected corn (1.27 vs. 1.33, respectively), which was potentially driven by the difference in apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of EE. Alternatively, FCR was not affected by environment in birds fed sorghumbased diets in Experiment 2, but those that consumed normal sorghum had lower feed intake than those fed drought-affected corn (750 vs. 796 g, respectively). In summary, commercial carbohydrase inclusion did not improve growth performance or nutrient digestibility in birds fed normal or drought-affected corn or sorghum. Birds fed drought-affected corn and sorghum affected growth performance variables, but environment did not affect final weight or mortality of broiler chicks.

Huitlacoche is the Aztecs name given to the smut galls on ears of maize caused by the pathogenic plant fungus Ustilago maydis [(DC) Corda.)]. It is known as maize mushroom, and it has been considered a delicacy and in Mesoamerica. The aim of the present study was to determine the responses of some maize varieties to the growth of the fungus in order to evaluate the prospect production of these smutty ears as a maize mushroom. A 2-year study was conducted in the Mediterranean region of Turkey in 2010 and 2011. Inoculations were performed by injecting inoculum into the ear through the silk channel of plants in plots. Each treatment had control plots. Average ear-gall (huitlacoche) severity and incidence of all the varieties were at the rates of 4.0 and 41.6%, respectively. However, the highest severity of ear-gall (6.5) and incidence (60.6%) were found in Karadeniz Yıldızı flint maize variety; colossal smutty ears were formed in the maize cultivars. This study showed that certain maize cultivars (flint corn and dent corn) can be used efficiently in the production of huitlacoche.

In the dry grind process, corn is ground, mixed with process water and cooked; starch is enzymatically hydrolyzed to sugars, and subsequently fermented to ethanol by yeast. The conversion of starch into ethanol, however, is not complete as distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) often contain more than 5% starch. The amount of unreacted starch represents inefficiencies in the process and reducing this amount is important to improving profitability of the ethanol industry. Additionally, dry grind facilities have reported seasonal variation in ethanol yields. In order to minimize variation in ethanol yields and the amount of unreacted starch in DDGS, it is important to understand the effects that storage temperature and time have on the digestibility of the corn starch. While starch quality is largely controlled by genetics and growing conditions, postharvest practices (handling, storage, and processing conditions) also affect starch composition and structure. In this study, changes in unreacted starch content of corn during storage were monitored to provide an explanation for the seasonal variation in ethanol yields observed by dry grind facilities. Yellow dent corn was harvested in 2011 and 2012 and stored indoors, outdoors, and under refrigeration for 5–12 mo. Results with the 2011 harvest corn showed unreacted starch content ranging from 2.17 to 14.1% over a 48 wk period. Unreacted starch was more influenced by storage time, initially decreasing at a rate of 0.31% per wk during the first 10 wk and steadily increased at an average rate of 0.16% per wk for the duration of storage. Results with the 2012 harvest corn, however, showed a higher average unreacted starch content of 13.0% during 20 wk of storage and no appreciable change in unreacted starch content regardless of storage temperature.

An effort to separate folic acid in horse dent corn hydrolyzate (Zea mays var. indentata) was conducted to recover concentrate as fortificant of natural folic acid. Separation process was done on yellow corn hydrolyzate and white corn hydrolyzate as a result of hydrolysis by protease enzyme of Rhizopus oligosporus strain-C1 by means of microfiltration (MF) (0.45 µm) and ultrafiltration (UF) (100000 MWCO) equipped in dead-end stirrer filtration cell (DESFC) at room temperature, stirrer rotation speed 400 rpm, and transmembrane pressure (TMP) 20, 30 and 40 psia for 30 minutes. Based on the best folic acid in retentate, result of experiment work indicated that optimization of process pressure in both MF and UF systems were achieved by using white corn hydrolyzate at TMP 30 psia and yellow corn hydrolyzate at TMP 20 psia. In both these treatments gave fluxes of 0.0397 ml/cm2.minute and 0.0361 ml/cm2.minute and recovery of folic acid 0.64 times and 0.73 times, total solids 1.24 times and 5.76 times, reducing sugars 13.81 times and 2.13 times, total sugars 0.62 times and 0.47 times, and dissolved protein 3.85 times and 2.3 times, respectively compared with feed streams. Identification of folic acid monomer as a result of MF and UF systems on white corn hydrolyzate and yellow corn hydrolyzate were produced 8 and 9 of folic acid monomer dominated by folic acid with MW 442.92 Da. and 442.58 Da., and relative intensities 100 % and 100 %.

Sitophilus zeamais (maize weevil) is one of the most destructive pests of maize stored in tropical and subtropical regions. This study determined the resistance of flint corn and dent corn to infestation by S. zeamais (Motschulsky), the maize weevil. Improved King Philip hybrid flint corn and Fontanelle 6T-510 hybrid dent corn were used in this experiment. Two temperature conditions (10 °C and 27 °C) and two storage times (15 days and 30 days) were used. Results showed that flint corn was more resistant to insect damage than dent corn at 27 °C and 30 day storage time. After 30 days storage time and 27 °C death rate was significantly higher in flint corn ( R 2 = 0.945) compared to ( R 2 = 0.634) in dent corn. Damaged seed was 10% higher in dent corn then in flint corn at 27 °C and 30 days. However, no significant difference was observed for seed weight loss between flint corn and dent corn at the same storage conditions. Both dent and flint corn were extensively cultivated in developing countries It appears that storage of flint corn may be one promising solution to reducing corn damage infestation problems in the tropics and in developing countries, but more research is needed.

In this study, 80 F7:8 recombinant inbred lines, derived from a cross between dent corn and waxy corn, were evaluated for ten grain yield and kernel quality-related traits over a 2-year period. A total of 39 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and 74 epistatic interactions were confirmed in 2011 and 2012. All QTLs detected in 2011 showed greater than 10 % phenotypic variation (10.21–50.3 %). In 2012, 19 of 23 QTLs showed phenotypic variation greater than 10 % (6.46–93.71 %). Among all QTLs detected, qAC9 had the highest phenotypic variance (93.71 %). Additionally, qEH4, qSEL6, and q100KW10 were stably expressed. These QTLs had higher phenotypic variance and were observed in both years; therefore, they may be considered major QTLs. Some new QTLs identified in this study were located on different loci compared with other studies. The genetic region (bin 4.08) strongly controls plant height and ear height, and results from pleiotropy and/or tight linkage. qST3 and qEH3 were co-located within two common adjacent simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers (umc2275 and umc1273), whereas qEL6 and qSEL6 were co-located within two common adjacent SSR markers (umc2309 and bnlg238). The QTLs related to kernel quality traits, qWC4 (water content) was tightly linked to the gene bt2 (brittle endosperm 2) and qAC9 (amylose content) located between the flanking markers umc1634 and wx1 (waxy1). Thus, these SSR markers are a useful selection tool for screening grain yield and yield component traits.

Dent corn, as a catch crop used for salt removal, was cultivated at different densities, i.e ., 7.3 (low density), 59.7 (normal density), and 119.5 plants m −2 (high density), during a 50 d fallow period after cultivation of a commercial crop in a greenhouse, to analyze the characteristics of nutrient salt (N, K, Mg, and Ca) uptake by roots and to study the effect of plant density on the characteristics associated with crop water use. Leaf area index for the high and normal density treatments reached extremely high values of 24.3 and 14.9, respectively. These values induced higher transpiration rates that were estimated using the Penman-Monteith model with the incorporation of specific parameters for crop and greenhouse conditions. The total N, K, Mg, and Ca contents in the crop canopy at harvest were 26.8, 13.0, 1.0, and 1.7 g m −2 , respectively, under the high density treatment. The dynamics of salt uptake rates for high, normal, and low density treatments were evaluated by assessing weekly changes in salt content, and were subsequently compared against the transpiration rate. A positive linear relationship was obtained between these 2 parameters for all 3 density treatments and all tested salts. Hence, higher transpiration rates caused higher salt uptake rates through water absorption. On the other hand, salt uptake efficiency per unit water use by cultivation was lower in the low density treatment. Therefore, management procedures with dense planting that induce higher transpiration rates and lower evaporation rate are extremely important for the effective cultivation of corn catch crops.

The hydration kinetics of transgenic corn types flint DKB 245PRO, semi-flint DKB 390PRO, and dent DKB 240PRO was studied at temperatures of 30, 40, 50, and 67 °C. The concentrated parameters model was used, and it fits the experimental data well for all three cultivars. The chemical composition of the corn kernels was also evaluated. The corn cultivar influenced the initial rate of absorption and the water equilibrium concentration, and the dent corn absorbed more water than the other cultivars at the four temperatures analyzed. The effect of hydration on the kernel texture was also studied, and it was observed that there was no significant difference in the deformation force required for all three corn types analyzed with longer hydration period.