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This research studies the implementation of blended learning in the case of a third semester group of students of English Language Teaching Bachelor Degree. The study was held in the State University of Chiapas, specifically in the Language School of Tapachula. These students were invited to participate in this project in order to determine the efficacy of the blended learning in the preparation for the PET. The methodology used in this research was an experimental method applied from a quantitative-descriptive approach. The subjects of the study were BA in ELT students of the Language School of Tapachula. Two PET exams were applied, one before the study and another at the end of the study. In the middle of the research, the students received both, face to face and online sessions along with questionnaires, surveys and interviews. This research affirms that blended learning offers several benefits for those students who show commitment with their learning goals, however, some students did not show any progress in most of the cases due to their lack of dedication.

The mechanism underlying the memory improvement induced by prebiotic and probiotic supplementation remains unclear. Glucagon-like peptide type 1 (GLP-1) could play an important role since it is induced by prebiotics and enhances memory and learning.We correlated the levels of GLP-1 with spatial memory in senile animals to determine its role in memory improvement after prebiotic and probiotic supplementation.Senile rats were randomly assigned to four groups: (1) water (control); (2) Enterococcus faecium (probiotic); (3) agave inulin (prebiotic); and (4) E. faecium + agave inulin (symbiotic). Each supplement was administered by an orogastric cannula for 5 weeks. In the fifth week, spatial memory was assessed using the Morris Water Maze test (MWM). We extracted the hippocampus, intestine, and serum. GLP-1 levels were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.A significant decrease in escape latency time in the MWM was observed in all groups treated with supplements. The symbiotic group achieved the highest reduction (15.13 s ± 6.40) (p 0.01). We did not find a significant increase in GLP-1 levels nor a direct correlation of its levels with spatial memory improvement (p 0.05).Prebiotic and probiotic supplementation improved spatial memory in senile animals. However, this beneficial effect did not correlate with GLP-1 levels.

Ovarian functions decrease with perimenopause. The ovary has extrinsic innervation, but the neural influence on ovarian functions and dysfunction is not well-studied. The present study aimed to biochemically and morphometrically characterize the intrinsic neurons in ovaries from young adult, middle-aged, and senescent Long Evans CII-ZV rats (3, 12, and 15 months old, respectively). Ovaries were extracted from four rats of each age group (n = 12 total), cryopreserved, and processed for immunofluorescence studies with the primary NeuN/β-tubulin and NeuN/tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) antibodies. The soma area and number of intrinsic neurons in the ovarian stroma, surrounding follicles, corpus luteum, or cyst were evaluated. The intrinsic neurons were grouped in cluster-like shapes in ovarian structures. In senescent rats, the intrinsic neurons were mainly localized in the ovarian stroma and around the cysts. The number of neurons was lower in senescent rats than in young adult rats (p

Aims To map sensory and pelvic postganglionic neurons from three different regions of the female rat urethra. Methods The neuronal tracer True Blue (TB) was injected into the pre-pelvic, pelvic, and clitoral regions of the urethra from female Wistar rats. Seven days after TB injection, TB+ cells from the dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and the major pelvic ganglion (MPG) were examined. The number and morphometry of TB+ cells were determined. Results TB+ cells were mainly distributed in lumbar 1 (L1), lumbar 2 (L2), lumbar 6 (L6), and sacral 1 (S1) DRGs, and in the MPG. The mean number of sensory neurons was 1200 ± 143. TB injection in pre-pelvic and pelvic urethra labeled neurons in L1, L2, L6, and S1 DRGs. TB injection in clitoral urethra labeled neurons in L6 and S1 DRGs. L6 DRG contained >50% of the total urethral TB+ neurons, and ~80% of the clitoral region. The mean value of the total number of MPG TB+ neurons was 1217 ± 72. DRG and MPG neurons projecting to the urethra presented a somatotopic distribution. Conclusions The results demonstrated that L6 DRG is the major supplier of afferent innervation to the urethra, and that the distal urethral region is exclusively innervated by lower lumbosacral DRGs. Considering that electrical stimulation of sensory pudendal nerve improves overactive bladder, and that most of the sensory neurons in the distal urethra are from L6 DRG, electrical stimulation of this ganglion may be an innovative and effective neuromodulation therapy for neurogenic urinary dysfunctions.

Research is a fundamental factor for the development and improvement of any area of study, however, the English Language Teaching (ELT) undergraduate programs in Mexico usually fail to promote research in their schools. This is the case of the ELT the undergraduate program of the Escuela de Lenguas, Campus Tapachula in the Autonomous University of Chiapas (UNACH as for its initials in Spanish), where little is known by the school about the organizational pattern of the submitted theses by trainees. This is a descriptive study that seeks out to reveal how these are structured in the Escuela de Lenguas, Campus Tapachula. This research is going to be carried out by applying questionnaires to trainees, graduates, thesis-supervisors, and members of the reading committee and conducting a documentary analysis of the theses submitted from 2012 to 2019 to detail how they are structured. It was discovered that most of the theses are composed of four chapters, yet most of the participants agree on the theses of five chapters. According to the results obtained, two different outlines were designed varying in the number of chapters and the elements included in each one.

Desde inicios de esta década se ha incrementado la búsqueda de tratamientos alternativos para el control de los síntomas de la menopausia, sobre todo para aquellas poblaciones de alto riesgo con restricciones para el consumo de estrógenos como tratamiento hormonal. El objetivo de este trabajo es describir la evidencia científica actual respecto a la efectividad del consumo de la maca, soya y linaza como tratamiento de la sintomatología menopáusica. Se expone de manera descriptiva la fisiopatología y síntomas de la menopausia, además de los efectos negativos en la calidad de vida de la mujer cuando se somete a tratamiento hormonal; por lo que se analiza el efecto benéfico del consumo de maca, soya y linaza, exponiendo las propiedades químicas y funcionales que ayudan a disminuir los síntomas característicos de la menopausia.

El teñido de la lana forma parte del patrimonio cultural de la etnia mazahua. En la comunidad de Santa Rosa de Lima el conocimiento local sobre sus técnicas se ha venido perdiendo debido a diversos factores sociales y económicos. Se realizó un levantamiento etnográfico con el que se hizo el análisis comparativo de los procesos de teñido entre 1995 y 2017, el cual destaca entre sus principales hallazgos que si bien las técnicas han variado y existen deficiencias en los procesos, las mujeres de la localidad mantienen su tradición y logran obtener los colores requeridos para su indumentaria. Éstos, y los materiales tintóreos de los que provienen, se encuentran estrechamente relacionados con la identidad cultural de las mujeres mazahuas. ___ The dyeing of wool is part of the cultural heritage of the Mazahua people. In the community of Santa Rosa de Lima, local knowledge of their techniques has been lost due to various social and economic factors. An ethnographic survey was conducted to make a comparative analysis of the dyeing processes between 1995 and 2017. This survey highlights, among its main findings, that although the techniques have varied and there are deficiencies in the processes, the local women maintain their tradition and manage to obtain the colors required for their clothing. These colors, and the dyeing materials from which they come (mainly indigo and cochineal), are closely related to Mazahua women’s cultural identity.

Audiovisual media provide a didactic resource in the teaching of literature and report valuable results by quickly and effectively capturing the attention of students. However, neither in the academic world nor in everyday life, the manifest and deep attraction that the public feels for audiovisual media, as well as the interest that teachers may have when using them, are directly proportional to the existence of adequate audiovisual teaching material, nor to its quality. The main objective of this work is to know the possibilities of the audiovisual applied to the formation and teaching of values, being this the main transmitter of information, knowledge and ideology in the Information Society in whose bosom we relate and develop.

Rats are gregarious and promiscuous and when a female enters the behavioral estrous, two or more males copulate alternately (mount, intromission or ejaculation are performed by any of them). This c...

Introduction and objective: Overactive bladder syndrome is associated with motor disorders, such as hypertonic pelvic floor. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the characteristics of pelvic floor muscle surface electromyography (semg) in patients with overactive bladder treated with percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation (ptns). Materials and methods: A prospective, observational, controlled study was conducted. Seventeen patients with treatment-refractory overactive bladder volunteered to undergo pelvic floor muscle semg before, during, and 72 hours after treatment with ptns. The study volunteers were divided into 2 groups: 14 in the ptns group and 3 in the placebo group. The inclusion criteria were overactive bladder progression of at least 6 months, urinary frequency of 8 or more daily episodes, and no medication use. The exclusion criteria were positive urine or semen cultures, lithiasis, biopsy and/or pelvic organ surgery, pelvic cancer, and central nervous system lesions. The variables were analyzed using the anova and the Tukey post-hoc test, with a 95% ci. The spss version 10.1. software was employed. Results: Mean patient age was 34.23±12.90 years and mean progression time was 19.58±12.08 months, with no statistically significant difference between groups. There were significant differences in the ptns group in the mean average semg (avg semg) in relation to preptns vs intraptns (0.125 µV) and preptns vs the 72-hour postPTNS (0.171 µV) (p 0.05). Conclusion: The immediate change in the pelvic floor muscles that lasts up to 72 hours after ptns is a possible mechanism of action of the neuroplasticity resulting from tibial nerve neuromodulation.

Objetivo. La enuresis es la incontinencia urinaria en niños y afecta negativamente su calidad de vida provocando estrés sicológico y social. No hay un consenso del uso de la neuromodulación por electroestimulación percutánea del nervio tibial (ptns por sus siglas en inglés). Esta revisión analiza el estado actual del tratamiento de la enuresis con neuromodulación por ptns. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de los artículos publicados en inglés y/o español sobre enuresis en PubMed, Cochrane y Scopus en los últimos 10 años. Resultados. Se encontró que sólo 5 artículos refieren a la ptns y enuresis, 3 en inglés y 2 en español. El reporte global de respuesta clínica es de 9% a 85%, con efectos adversos casi nulos, aunque un estudio reportó que en un 20% de pacientes el tratamiento fue inefectivo. Conclusiones. La neuromodulación por ptns para el tratamiento de la enuresis tiene buenos resultados, sin embargo, hacen falta estudios controlados para determinar su efecto en el manejo de la enuresis, especialmente la monosintomática.

El siguiente artículo trata sobre una sistematización realizada sobre el concepto de metodología. Para ello, se muestra como se ha definido de variadas maneras; las que varían en dependencia del plano desde el cual se precisan. Lo anterior, presupone que conceptualmente puede ser entendida desde un punto de vista general, particular o específico. Al respecto, el trabajo tiene como objetivo presentar los resultados de la metodología que se construye como resultado científico. De manera que, fue necesario prestarle atención a los elementos que la componen; entre los que se encuentran; métodos, procedimientos y técnicas. Estos, permiten presentar los resultados de la generalización de la actividad científica. Además, a partir del impacto que recibe la ciencia pedagógica, están dirigidas a enriquecer; la investigación pedagógica, la teoría pedagógica, o la práctica pedagógica. Lo anterior, implica un ejemplo de aplicación a un estudio de profundización para la generalización de los resultados científicos a la formación inicial del profesional de educación en las universidades.

The aims of the present study were to describe, in male rats, the anatomical organization of the major and accessory pelvic ganglia (MPG, AG; respectively), the interrelationship of the pelvic plexus components, and the morphometry of the pelvic postganglionic neurons. Anatomical, histochemical and histological studies were performed in anesthetized adult Wistar male rats. We found that the pelvic plexus consists of intricate neural circuits composed of two MPG, and three pairs of AG (AGI, AGII, AGIII) anatomically interrelated through ipsilateral and contralateral commissural nerves. Around 30 nerves emerge from each MPG and 17 from AGI and AGII. The MPG efferent nerves spread out preganglionic information to several pelvic organs controlling urinary, bowel, reproductive and sexual functions, while AG innervation is more regional, and it is confined to reproductive organs located in the rostral region of the urogenital tract. Both MPG and AG contain nerve fascicles, blood vessels, small intensely fluorescent cells, satellite cells and oval neuronal somata with one to three nucleoli. The soma area of AG neurons is larger than those of MPG neurons (p 0.005). The MPG contains about 75% of the total pelvic postganglionic neurons. Our findings corroborated previous reports about MPG inputs, and add new information regarding pelvic ganglia efferent branches, AG neurons (number and morphometry), and neural interrelationship between the pelvic plexus components. This information will be useful in designing future studies about the role of pelvic innervation in the physiology and pathophysiology of pelvic functions.

El cuerpo lúteo es un tejido dinámico que se forma después de que el ovocito es liberado del folículo ovárico. Su principal función es la producción de progesterona para el establecimiento y mantenimiento de la preñez. En esta revisión se abordan temas relacionados con la formación, función y regresión del cuerpo lúteo. Se describen procesos fisiológicos tales como angiogénesis y el efecto de hormonas no esteroideas producidas por el cuerpo lúteo. También se incluye una sección sobre inervación intrínseca del ovario, incluyendo al cuerpo lúteo, un tema controvertido ya que se considera que esta estructura no recibe inervación. Los avances en la comprensión de la fisiología del cuerpo lúteo ayudarán a mejorar nuestro conocimiento sobre la fisiología de las gónadas, fundamentalmente para buscar nuevos tratamientos a problemas de fertilidad asociados a insuficiencia lútea, por lo que es altamente relevante tanto para la clínica humana como en la zootecnia.

AIMS To analyze, in female rats, the anatomical and histological features of the urethra and its relationship with the vagina and clitoris, and its innervation. METHODS Seventeen adult female Wistar rats were used. Gross anatomy and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) histochemistry were performed to describe the urethral features, adjacent structures, and innervation. The histomorphometric characteristics of the urethra were determined in transversal, longitudinal, or coronal sections stained with Masson's Trichrome. RESULTS The female rat urethra is not a homogeneous tubular organ. The pre-pelvic and pelvic regions are firmly attached to the vagina with belt-like striated fibers forming a urethra-vaginal complex. The bulbar regions have curved segments and a narrow lumen. The clitoral region is characterized by a urethra-clitoral complex surrounded by a vascular plexus. The lumen area and thickness of the urethral layers significantly varied between regions (P

Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the hypothesis that an enlarged prostate in old rats may lead to complications associated with voiding dysfunction involving ionotropic P2X2/3-type purinergic receptorsMethods: Intact animals were divided into male young (MYR; 8–10 weeks old) and male old (MOR; 20 months old) rats. The animals underwent simultaneous detrusor electromyography (EMG) and suprapubic cystometry (CMG) under urethane anesthesia. Immunofluorescence techniques were used to evaluate prostatic autonomic innervation and P2X3R expression in bladder urothelial cells. The functional role of P2X3R was characterized by intramuscular application of AF-353, a selective P2X2/3R antagonist.Results: The prostate index significantly increased in MOR, suggestive of an enlarged prostate affecting micturition patterns. Significant EMG and CMG differences were found between MYR and MOR. Higher immunoreactivity for P2X2/3R in the urothelial layer and for prostatic neurofilaments was seen in MOR. Systemic inhibition of P2X2/3R had minimal effects on MYR responsiveness, but improved voiding function in MOR with a marked decrease of intravesical pressure and bladder contractile responses.Conclusions: The data support the hypothesis that an enlarged prostate in MOR may contribute to voiding dysfunction involving activation of P2X2/3R, which enhances a prostate-bladder reflex. This reflex may increase bladder afferent transmission and activation of increased prostate innervation, leading to voiding dysfunction.

The use of dye plants is part of the cultural inheritance of Santa Rosa de Lima, Mexico. Numerous dye plants are present in the region, but women mainly use indigo and cochineal to dye wool for making traditional clothing. A comparative study was conducted to identify changes in the use of natural dyes between 1995 and 2017. A bibliographic review identified 29 potential dye species in the region. A catalog of 149 samples of dyed wool was created using these species and was presented to 11 local women to evaluate their willingness to use different natural dyes. Despite the existence of various dye species in the region, the women preferred indigo and cochineal because these dyes form part of their cultural identity. The women were aware of only five regional dye species, dodder, dahlia, Mexican marigold, sunflower, and bush sunflower, which are used to create yellow, orange, and green colors. The collection of wild dye plants has decreased over time, and these plants have been increasingly substituted by Mexican marigold. However, the women showed interest in using nine of the 29 species in the catalog and in selling handmade textiles, even though this artisanal activity has not been developed up to the present date.

The pudendal nerve can be injured during vaginal delivery of children, and slowed pudendal nerve regeneration has been correlated with development of stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Simultaneous injury to the pudendal nerve and its target muscle, the external urethral sphincter (EUS), during delivery likely leads to slowed neuroregeneration. The goal of this study was to determine if repeat electrical stimulation of the pudendal nerve improves SUI recovery and promotes neuroregeneration in a dual muscle and nerve injury rat model of SUI. Rats received electrical stimulation or sham stimulation of the pudendal nerve twice weekly for up to 2 wk after injury. A separate cohort of rats received sham injury and sham stimulation. Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and βII-tubulin expression in Onuf’s nucleus were measured 2, 7, and 14 days after injury. Urodynamics, leak point pressure (LPP), and EUS electromyography (EMG) were recorded 14 days after injury. Electrical stimulation significantly increased expression of BDNF at all time points and βII-tubulin 1 and 2 wk after injury. Two weeks after injury, LPP and EUS EMG during voiding and LPP testing were significantly decreased compared with sham-injured animals. Electrical stimulation significantly increased EUS activity during voiding, although LPP did not fully recover. Repeat pudendal nerve stimulation promotes neuromuscular continence mechanism recovery possibly via a neuroregenerative response through BDNF upregulation in the pudendal motoneurons in this model of SUI. Electrical stimulation of the pudendal nerve may therefore improve recovery after childbirth and ameliorate symptoms of SUI by promoting neuroregeneration after injury.

Background In male rats, the bulbourethral glands (Bu-Gs) are the unique accessory sexual glands surrounded by striated musculature. However, until now the role of this musculature was unknown. Objectives (i) To characterize the Bu-Gs striated muscular layer in male rats and determine its innervation and response to genital stimulation. (ii) To reveal the role of the Bu-Gs striated musculature in the release of glandular secretion. (iii) To elucidate the effect of bilateral ablation of the Bu-Gs on copulatory behavior and seminal fluid characteristics. Materials and methods Adult Wistar male rats were allocated in three experiments: in Experiment 1, the Bu-Gs striated musculature, innervation and reflex activity were determined by gross anatomy and histological and electrophysiological techniques; electromyographic activity of the Bu-Gs striated musculature was evoked with genital stimulation. In Experiment 2, Bu-Gs were analyzed after copulatory behavior of intact or animals with unilateral transected motor branch of the sacral plexus (MBSP). In Experiment 3, copulatory behavior and spermatobioscopy of males with bilateral ablation of the Bu-Gs or sham surgery were analyzed. Results The Bu-Gs striated fibers discharged in response to mechanostimulation of the prepuce, glans, and penile-urethra. Innervation of the Bu-Gs striated musculature originated from the MBSP; this nerve also innervates striated penile muscles. Unilateral transection of the MBSP significantly decreased the secretion from the ipsilateral Bu-G to the nerve transection. Bilateral ablation of Bu-Gs did not affect seminal plug formation but decreased semen viscosity. Discussion and conclusion The Bu-Gs striated musculature contributes to expel glandular secretion during sexual intercourse. The somatic control of Bu-Gs secretion is additional to the reported autonomic innervation supplied by the cavernosus nerve, which may underlie the synthesis of secretion as well as contraction of Bu-Gs smooth muscle.

The purpose of this study is to determine whether neural and/or endocrine factors are related to urinary and sexual disease comorbidity. Common neural circuitries at cerebral, spinal, and peripheral levels participate in the control of urogenital organs. The convergence and crosstalk of pelvic organ information in the central nervous system may underlie comorbidity of urinary-sexual dysfunctions, and also subserve the success of genital and tibial nerve stimulation therapies to treat overactive bladder. Nonetheless, the relevance of gonadal hormones to the pathophysiology of urinary-sexual functions is still controversial. The etiology of urinary dysfunctions is usually considered to be at the periphery. However, spinal and supraspinal sites controlling urogenital organs deteriorate with age and can be another factor for urogenital dysfunctions. In addition, although it is well recognized that urinary incontinence has a negative impact on sexual functions, there is no research investigating the impact of sexual function/dysfunction on the urinary organs.

Objetivo: Identificar los conocimientos ecológicos tradicionales sobre hongos comestibles silvestres que poseen los recolectores de una comunidad indígena en el centro de México, así como su aprovechamiento. Diseño, metodología y aproximación: Se llevó a cabo un estudio de caso simple con enfoque cualitativo, desde la perspectiva etnometodológica. Resultados: Los Conocimientos Ecológicos Tradicionales que poseen los recolectores matlatzincas se encuentran depositados en sólo algunas personas, por lo que corren el riesgo de perderse en el tiempo. Limitaciones e implicaciones: El trabajo únicamente considera la perspectiva de los recolectores por lo que es necesario incorporar los puntos de vista de otros actores locales y externos con incidencia en el territorio. Hallazgos y conclusiones: Los recolectores de hongos comestibles silvestres poseen los Conocimientos Ecológicos Tradicionales necesarios para su recolección y aprovechamiento culinario, lo cual contribuye a la economía familiar, sin embargo, es necesario tomar medidas para evitar la pérdida de dichos conocimientos.

Aim To determine the anatomical organization and somatic axonal components of the lumbosacral nerves in female rabbits. Methods Chinchilla adult anesthetized female rabbits were used. Anatomical, electrophysiological, and histological studies were performed. Results L7, S1, and some fibers from S2 and S3 form the lumbosacral trunk, which gives origin to the sciatic nerve and innervation to the gluteal region. From S2 to S3 originates the pudendal nerve, whose branches innervates the striated anal and urethra sphincters, as well as the bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernosus, and constrictor vulvae muscles. The sensory field of the pudendal nerve is ∼1800 mm2 and is localized in the clitoral sheath and perineal and perigenital skin. The organization of the pudendal nerve varies between individuals, three patterns were identified, and one of them was present in 50% of the animals. From S3 emerge the pelvic nerve, which anastomoses to form a plexus localized between the vagina and the rectum. The innervation of the pelvic floor originates from S3 to S4 fibers. Conclusions Most of the sacral spinal nerves of rabbit are mixed, carrying sensory, and motor information. Sacral nerves innervate the hind limbs, pelvic viscera, clitoris, perineal muscles, inguinal and anal glands and perineal, perigenital, and rump skin. The detailed description of the sacral nerves organization, topography, and axonal components further the knowledge of the innervation in pelvic and perinal structures of the female rabbit. This information will be useful in future studies about the physiology and physiopathology of urinary, fecal, reproductive, and sexual functions.

The aim of the present study was to use a model of simulated human childbirth in rats to determine the damage to genitourinary structures and behavioral signs of urinary dysfunction induced by vaginal distension (VD) in female rats. In experiment 1, the length of the genitourinary tract and the nerves associated with it were measured immediately after simulated human delivery induced by VD or sham (SH) procedures. Electroneurograms of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris (DNC) were also recorded. In experiment 2, histological characteristics of the bladder and major pelvic ganglion of VD and SH rats were evaluated. In experiment 3, urinary parameters were determined in conscious animals during 6 h of dark and 6 h of light before and 3 days after VD or SH procedures. VD significantly increased distal vagina width ( P < 0.001) and the length of the motor branch of the sacral plexus ( P < 0.05), DNC ( P < 0.05), and vesical nerves ( P < 0.01) and decreased DNC frequency and amplitude of firing. VD occluded the pelvic urethra, inducing urinary retention, hematomas in the bladder, and thinness of the epithelial ( P < 0.05) and detrusor ( P < 0.01) layers of the bladder. Major pelvic ganglion parameters were not modified after VD. Rats dripped urine in unusual places to void, without the stereotyped behavior of micturition after VD. The neuroanatomic injuries after VD occur alongside behavioral signs of urinary incontinence as determined by a new behavioral tool for assessing micturition in conscious animals.

Prostate function is regulated by androgens and a neural control via the pelvic and hypogastric nerves. As such, this sexual gland contains receptors for acetylcholine and noradrenaline, although it is unknown whether the expression of these receptors is affected by sexual behavior and even less by denervation of the gland. Thus, the purpose of this work was to evaluate the effect of repeated sexual behavior on the expression of noradrenaline, acetylcholine, and androgen receptors at the prostate, and how they are affected by denervation. To achieve this, we used sexually experienced males denervated at the pelvic or hypogastric nerves, or both. The messenger (mRNA) and protein for androgen, noradrenergic, and cholinergic receptors were evaluated. The weight of the gland and the levels of serum testosterone were also measured. We found that: (1) sexual behavior was not affected by denervation; (2) blood testosterone levels increased due to sexual behavior but such increase is prevented by denervation; (3) the weight of the ventral prostate increased with sexual behavior but was not affected by denervation; (4) AR messenger levels increased with sexual behavior but were not altered by denervation; (5) the messenger for noradrenergic and cholinergic receptors decreased after denervation, and those for muscarinic receptors increased, and (6) only AR protein decreased after denervation of both nerves, while those for other receptors remained unchanged. In summary, we show that the three receptors have different regulatory mechanisms, and that only androgen receptors are regulated by both autonomic systems.

Electromyographic studies have shown that external anal sphincter activity is modified in response to distension in animals with spinal cord injury. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and its agonist leuprolide acetate have neurotrophic properties in animals with spinal cord injury. This study was to determine the effects of leuprolide acetate treatment on electromyographic activity of the external anal sphincter and anorectal manometry in ovariectomized rats with spinal cord injury. Adult ovariectomized rats were divided in three groups: (a) sham of spinal cord injury, (b) spinal cord injury treated with saline solution, and (c) spinal cord injury treated with leuprolide acetate. The spinal cord injury was induced by clamping at level T9. Leuprolide acetate dosage of 10 μg/kg was proctored intramuscular for 5 weeks, commencing the day after the lesion. Electromyography of the external anal sphincter, anorectal manometry, and volume of the cecum were evaluated in all groups. The electromyographic study of the external anal sphincter activity showed a significant improvement in injured rats treated with leuprolide acetate. Manometric analysis and cecum volume data obtained in animals with leuprolide acetate were very similar to those found in the sham group. These results demonstrate that leuprolide acetate treatment improves the neurogenic colon in ovariectomized rats with spinal cord injury.

ANTECEDENTES: La incontinencia urinaria de urgencia es una alteración con elevada prevalencia en México (60%), asociada con diversos grados de incapacidad para la vida diaria. El tratamiento incluye terapia conductual y neuromodulación.OBJETIVO: Evaluar la reacción de la musculatura del piso pélvico durante la biorretroalimentación asistida por estimulación eléctrica transcutánea del nervio pudendo en pacientes con incontinencia urinaria de urgencia.MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Estudio observacional, longitudinal, no experimental, llevado a cabo en pacientes con incontinencia urinaria de urgencia, quienes recibieron tratamiento conductual con biorretroalimentación asistida por estimulación eléctrica transcutánea del nervio pudendo. Se registraron las variables de edad, evolución y parámetros del diario vesical. Se utilizó un equipo de urodinamia (Andromeda®) con transductor transrectal, se registró la perineometría en reposo, en contracción voluntaria de la musculatura del piso pélvico y durante la electroestimulación transcutánea del nervio pudendo con estimulación neuromuscular EMS+2 (Staodyn®). Para el análisis de los datos se utilizó el programa SPSS 10.1 (IC95% y prueba t de Student).RESULTADOS: Se registraron 14 pacientes, con media de edad de 59.8 ± 11.80 años. Durante la primera sesión la media de perineometría en reposo fue 1.21 ± 0.42 cmH20, en contracción voluntaria 13.64 ± 7.09 cmH20 y con electroestimulación transcutánea del nervio pudendo 46.4 ± 7.14 cmH20 (p

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the role that intravesical P2X2/3 purinergic receptors (P2X2/3R) play in early and advanced neurogenic lower urinary tract (LUT) dysfunction after contusion spinal cord injury (SCI) in female rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Female Sprague-Dawley rats received a thoracic Th8/Th9 spinal cord contusion with either force of 100 kDynes (kDy; moderate) or 150 kDynes (severe); Sham animals had no injury. Evaluations on urethane-anesthetized rats were at either two or four weeks post-SCI. LUT electrical signals and changes in bladder pressure were simultaneously recorded using cystometry and a set of custom-made flexible microelectrodes before and after intravesical application of the P2X2/3R antagonist AF-353 (10 μM) to determine the contribution of P2X2/3R-mediated LUT modulation. RESULTS: Severe SCI significantly increased bladder contraction frequency, and reduced both bladder pressure amplitude and intraluminal-pressure high-frequency oscillations (IPHFO). Intravesical P2X2/3R inhibition did not modify bladder pressure nor IPHFO in Sham and moderate SCI animals, although did increase intercontractile interval. At two weeks after SCI, Sham and moderate-SCI animals presented significant LUT electromyographic activity during voiding, with a noticeable reduction in LUT electrical signals observed at four weeks post-SCI. Intravesical inhibition of P2X2/3R increased the intercontractile interval in Sham and moderate SCI rats at either time point, but had no effect on animals with severe SCI. The external urethral sphincter (EUS) showed strong, and P2X2/3R-independent electrical signals in either Sham or moderate-SCI rats in the early SCI stage. At four weeks post-SCI the responsiveness of the EUS was significantly attenuated, independently of SCI intensity. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that electrophysiological properties of the LUT are progressively impaired depending on SCI intensity and that intravesical P2X2/3R inhibition can attenuate electrical activity in the neurogenic LUT at early, but not at semi-chronic SCI. This translational study should be useful for planning clinical evaluations.

OBJETIVO: Analizar la relación entre las bandas monoclonales detectadas en la electroforesis de proteínas séricas y el daño renal. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Estudio observacional, descriptivo y retrospectivo efectuado a partir de la revisión de los resultados de electroforesis de proteínas efectuado en el Laboratorio de Diagnóstico Clínico del Centro de Investigaciones Médico-Quirúrgicas de La Habana, Cuba, entre enero de 2010 y diciembre de 2016. Criterios de inclusión: pacientes con componente monoclonal detectado en la electroforesis y confirmado por inmunofijación, y pacientes sin componente monoclonal en la electroforesis de proteínas, pero detectado en la inmunofijación realizada por impresión diagnóstica de mieloma múltiple. Los estudios de electroforesis de proteínas en suero y orina de 24 horas se efectuaron en gel de agarosa, con el sistema automatizado Hydrasys 2 (Sebia®). Para el análisis estadístico se utilizaron las pruebas de Kolmogorov-Smirnov, χ2 y t de Student. Se consideró estadísticamente significativo el IC95% (α = 0.05). RESULTADOS: Se registraron 73 pacientes con gammapatías monoclonales. En 17 se reportaron concentraciones de inmunoglobulinas en los límites de referencia. La mayoría de los pacientes tuvo concentración elevada de creatinina en suero (129 ± 46 μmol/L), aunque solo 7/73 tenía diagnóstico de insuficiencia renal asociada con el componente monoclonal. La concentración de inmunoglobulinas (IgG, IgA e IgM), según sus valores de referencia, se relacionó con el tipo de componente monoclonal detectado. Se encontró un caso de mieloma IgD, con inicio de insuficiencia renal y estudio de electroforesis de proteínas séricas normal. CONCLUSIONES: La inmunofijación sigue siendo un método útil para establecer el diagnóstico de gammapatías monoclonales, sobre todo cuando la electroforesis de proteínas no sugiera esta alteración y pueda verse afectada la función renal. PALABRAS CLAVE: Gammapatía monoclonal; electroforesis de proteínas; inmunofijación; insuficiencia renal.

We determined the effect of chronic bilateral neurectomy of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris on urinary parameters and sexual behavior of conscious female rats.A total of 18 anesthetized virgin female Wistar rats were used in this study, including 11 that underwent bilateral neurectomy of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris and 7 that underwent sham surgery. Urinary parameters were determined in awake animals preoperatively, and 3 and 10 days postoperatively. Sexual behavior was tested 14 days postoperatively to determine whether the females expelled urine during sexual encounters. After male ejaculation the females were anesthetized with urethane to record external urethral sphincter electromyogram activity in response to clitoris, perigenital skin and vaginal stimulation. Neurectomy was corroborated anatomically.Sham surgery did not significantly modify urinary parameter values. However, bilateral neurectomy of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris significantly increased voiding frequency and voiding duration (p0.05). It did not significantly affect the flow rate, voided volume or voiding interval. Of females that underwent bilateral neurectomy of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris 67% expelled urine just after male ejaculation.These results suggest that the pudendal nerve is an important neural pathway in the convergence and crosstalk of female urogenital neural circuits, and genital deafferentation may be a causal factor of coital urinary incontinence. Rats with bilateral transection of the dorsal nerve of the clitoris may serve as an animal model of coital incontinence.

Aims To determine whether the external urethral sphincter (EUS) fasciculi of male rats respond to the mechanical stimulation of genital structures and to characterize the pattern of the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the three regions of the EUS: the cranial (CrEUS), the medial (MeEUS) and the caudal (CaEUS). Methods Electromyographic signals were recorded from the CrEUS, MeEUS and CaEUS regions of the male rat's EUS, before, during and after the mechanical stimulation of the urogenital structures. Results The CrEUS, MeEUS and CaEUS regions responded when brushing and squeezing the foreskin and glans as well as to penile and prostatic urethral distension. The CaEUS EMG amplitude (P

Background: CIGB 814 is an Altered Peptide Ligand (APL) from a CD4+ T-cell epitope of human heat shock protein 60 (HSP60), an auto-antigen involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). It induced mechanisms associated with restoration of peripheral tolerance in preclinical studies. This clinical trial was conducted to assess safety and pharmacokinetics (PK) of CIGB-814 in patients with RA. Method: 20 patients with moderated active RA were included in an open label trial. Sequential dose-escalation of 1, 2.5 and 5 mg of CIGB-814 was studied. Consecutive groups of six, five and nine patients received a subcutaneous dose weekly of the peptide during the first month and one dose monthly during the next five months. Clinical response in patients was evaluated according to the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) and Disease Activity Score in 28 joints (DAS 28) criteria. Function and health-related quality of life, quantification of proinflammatory cytokines and radiographic changes in patients by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were also assessed. Result: The treatment was well tolerated at all doses. Only mild events were observed. PK study showed that CIGB-814 reached the maximum concentration in plasma in 30 min and was cleared mostly after 4 h. CIGB-814 reduced disease activity and MRI score in patients. This effect was less marked with the dose of 5 mg. Five and eleven out of 18 patients achieved ACR 50 and ACR 70 respectively at the end of the treatment. In addition, patients showed decreases of DAS28 scores, during treatment and at the end of the follow-up. This therapy improved function and health-related quality of life of patients. CIGB-814 significantly decreased interleukin (IL)-17 in patients treated with 2.5 mg. Therapy with 1 mg and 2.5 mg of CIGB-814 led to significant reduction of interferon gamma (IFN-γ). Conclusion: Phase I concluded showing safety of CIGB-814. The PK profile revealed that peptide is cleared from plasma very rapidly. Results indicated preliminary evidences of clinical efficacy and support further clinical investigation of this peptide for treatment of RA. Trial registration: RPCEC00000238.

Stroke morbidity and mortality rates have been increasing over recent years, mainly in low-income countries, which, according to the World Health Organization, account for 80% of cases, owing to the fact that there has been an increase in the prevalence of associated risk factors, mainly atherosclerosis. Since neurological outcomes depend on the method and timeframe in which the patient is treated, the study of new and better pharmacological treatments and preventive therapies is of great importance. Different mechanisms of damage are involved in the evolution of the ischemic lesion, and each one represents a target for treatment. In line with this, therapeutic strategies should be developed with the aim of inhibiting one or some of these damaging mechanisms, including those arising from the initial lack of oxygen and glucose delivery, up to the immune response observed after stroke. The ultimate aim of treatment should be to reduce morbidity and mortality and, most importantly, to improve patients’ quality of life by inducing neuroprotection and generating neural recovery in an effort to reduce inferior neurological outcomes and permanent disabilities.

Background Delivery of therapeutic agents as erythropoietin (EPO) into Central Nervous System through intranasal route could benefit patients with neurological disorders. A new nasal formulation containing a non-hematopoietic recombinant EPO (NeuroEPO) has shown neuroprotective actions in preclinical models. In the current study, the safety of NeuroEPO was evaluated for the first time in humans. Methods A phase I, randomized, parallel, open-label study was carried out in healthy volunteers. They received, intranasally, 1 mg of NeuroEPO every 8 h during 4 days (Group A) or 0.5 mg of NeuroEPO (Group B) with the same schedule. The working hypothesis was that intranasal NeuroEPO produce

Iatrogenic injury to the spinal cord (SC) is not an uncommon complication of spinal surgery. In an attempt to establish a preventive therapy for anticipated SC injury, we tested the effect of a single dose (SD) vaccine vs. the addition of a booster dose (BD) of a neural-derived peptide (A91) prior to SC contusion. Immunization with A91 immediately after SC injury has demonstrated to induce significant tissue protection and motor recovery. After injury, only the BD vaccination schedule had a neuroprotective effect. It was capable of improving neurological recovery that was always significantly higher than the one observed in rats with SD immunization or those only treated with PBS. Toward the end of study, animals treated with an A91 BD presented a BBB score of 9.75 ± 0.17 (mean ± standard deviation) while rats treated with SD or PBS had a score of 6.6 ± 0.7 and 5.6 ± 0.6 respectively. In the next step we attempted to corroborate the neuroprotective effect induced by A91 immunization. For this purpose, we assessed the survival of rubrospinal neurons (RSNs) and ventral horn neurons (VHNs) sixty days after SC injury. BD vaccination induced a significant survival of both RSNs and VHNs after injury. Finally, the failure or success of this therapy (SD or BD respectively) was associated with a lower (SD) or higher (BD) A91-specific T cell proliferation. Prophylactic neuroprotection with an initial and subsequent booster dose of A91 may improve recovery after SC injury sustained during invasive spinal surgery procedures.

Aims The purpose of the present study was to determine the contribution of the external urethral sphincter (EUS), the ischiocavernous (IC), or the bulbospongiosus (BS) on the control of micturition, copulatory behavior and semen expulsion in male rats. We hypothesized that the EUS contributes to maintain urinary continence, while all three muscles participate in expulsive urethral functions. Methods In Experiment 1, it was analyzed the effects of bilateral denervation of IC, BS or EUS, or sham surgery, on voiding behavior and urinary parameters measured before surgery and 2 and 10 days post-surgery. In Experiment 2, copulatory behavior and the weight of the seminal plug expelled during ejaculation were recorded before and after sham surgery or bilateral denervation of the aforementioned muscles. Immediately after ejaculation, the animals were anesthetized to confirm the denervation and determine whether seminal material had accumulated in the lower urinary tract. Results In IC-denervated animals, voiding duration and the number of mounts was increased, and intromission or ejaculation patterns were absent. Denervation of BS induced signs of post-micturition dribble, decreased voiding frequency, increased urine volume and reduced the amount of semen ejaculated. Denervation of EUS induced signs of post-micturition dribble and urinary incontinence, as well as retrograde ejaculation. Conclusions Striated muscles anatomically related to the urethra contribute differentially to the control of continence and expulsive urethral functions. Damages to the muscles or to their innervation, as may occur during pelvic surgery, would result in sexual and urinary dysfunctions. Neurourol. Urodynam. 33:437–442, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cerebrovascular diseases are currently among the three primary causes of death worldwide and are the first cause of disability in adults. Nevertheless, there are no neuroprotective or neurorestorative therapies that have shown considerable beneficial effects, except for the FDA-approved recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA), which has been used for decades for the treatment of stroke and its effectiveness is still controversial. This is why it is very important to develop effective therapeutic options. In order to achieve this objective, it is essential to recognize the secondary mechanisms involved in the pathological development. The immunological system is one of these mechanisms that participate during the acute and chronic phases of disease, both in deleterious and beneficial manners. It is known that the immune system’s duality contributes to the ischemic injury through proinflammatory cytokine (tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6)), and oxygen reactive species production, etc. Nevertheless, it also provides protection and even restoration through anti-inflammatory cytokine (interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)), and growth factor (brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), neurotrophin-4 (NT-4)) production. This states that innovative therapeutic options must be proposed with the goal of protecting and restoring the tissue after the ischemic event. Such therapies are exposed in the present chapter.

Aims To determine the contribution of the striated musculature anatomically related to the urethra on urinary continence in conscious male rats. We tested whether the bilateral neurectomy of the motor branch of the sacral plexus (MBSP), a nerve that innervates the bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernosus, and external urethral sphincter, is a reliable procedure to induce changes in voiding pattern that can be used as indicators of urinary incontinence in unanesthetized male rats. Methods Micturition behavior was videotaped and urinary parameters measured 24 h before and at day 2 and 10 after surgery. Results Intact animals have a stereotyped behavior of micturition consisting in urination in the corner of the cage. Neurectomized animals lost place preference for voiding demonstrated by leakage of urine throughout the cage while eating, walking, or sleeping. Voiding frequency was double and voiding duration was triple the amount before surgery. Urine flow rate and voiding volume were also significantly decreased. Necropsy showed that 10 days post-denervation semen material was accumulated in the urethra and in the bladder. Conclusion In male rats the perineal striated muscles are crucial to maintaining normal urinary continence, preventing retrograde ejaculation, and to expelling urine and seminal secretions. Bilateral neurectomy of the MBSP may not be appropriate for long term survival urinary studies because effects on urinary parameters can be contaminated and/or masked by impaired seminal fluid expulsion, as a consequence of impairment of striated urethral muscle function. Neurourol. Urodynam. 31:1288–1293, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Surgical microscopy and electrophysiological techniques were used to describe in the adult male rat the peripheral distribution of the sensory branch of the pudendal nerve (SBPdn) and its sensory and somatomotor axonal components. Gross and histological features of the urethralis muscle were also determined. We propose to name the SBPdn branches according to the corresponding target structure. We found branches to the urethral diverticulum, major pelvic ganglion, corpus cavernosus of the penis, urethralis muscle, preputial glands, corpus spongiosus of the penis, foreskin and glans penis. Under the pubic bone three anastomotic branches form a bridge-like structure we called pelvic plexus. Through electrophysiological studies it was determined that the SBPdn carries efferent fibers to the striated urethralis muscle, as well as afferent axons from the glans penis and foreskin. We concluded that the SBPdn of the male rat has sensory and somatomotor components. This nerve is mixed and not exclusively sensory as was previously described. The finding of the anatomic relation to the major pelvic ganglion implies nerve communication with the autonomic nervous system. The functions of the somatomotor component and nerves to the urethral diverticulum, cavernosus bodies and preputial glands of the SBPdn remain to be determined. According to its targets, this innervation could contribute in the control of genitourinary functions such as voiding, erection, ejaculation and urinary marking.

Las categorías dominios de contenidos, dominios cognitivos, niveles de asimilación y niveles de desempeño cognitivos, introducida en los análisis mediante los cuales se interpretan los resultados de la evaluación de la calidad del aprendizaje en las diferentes educaciones en nuestro país, han ganado espacio en su uso en la práctica pedagógica. Por consiguiente, ofrecer algunas reflexiones sobre estos aspectos es el fin del presente trabajo.

The damage in ischemic stroke is caused by two events: (i) the ischemic phenomenon by itself; (ii) the self-destructive mechanisms developed as a consequence of ischemia. The inflammatory response is one of these destructive phenomena that accompanies and exacerbates the developing injury. Since it has been suggested that immune cells participate in neuroprotective and restorative processes, modulation rather than elimination of this inflammatory response could be a strategy to improve the neurological outcome. The immune modulator copolymer-1 (Cop-1), a synthetic basic random copolymer of amino acids, is a potent inducer of Th2 regulatory cells which, aside from exerting modulatory actions, is capable of releasing neurotrophic factors. There is evidence that Cop-1-specific T cells exert neuroprotective and even restorative effects in diverse neurodegenerative diseases. In order to test the ability of Cop-1 to prevent ischemic injury in a model of transient middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion, two groups of rats were treated either with Cop-1 or with saline solution (SS). Seven days after occlusion, Cop-1 treated rats presented a significant improvement in neurological function compared to SS-treated animals (1.2+/-0.4 and 2.8+/-0.5 mean+/-S.D., respectively; p=0.008). Histological findings showed that the percentage of infarct volume was smaller in Cop-1 treated rats (4.8+/-1.5), in comparison with those receiving SS (32.2+/-8.6; p=0.004). Cop-1 constitutes a promising therapy for stroke; thereby, the enforcement of further experimental investigation is encouraged in order to be able to formulate the best strategy.

To determine whether the external urethral sphincter (EUS) fasciculi of male rats respond to the mechanical stimulation of genital structures and to characterize the pattern of the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the three regions of the EUS: the cranial (CrEUS), the medial (MeEUS) and the caudal (CaEUS).Electromyographic signals were recorded from the CrEUS, MeEUS and CaEUS regions of the male rat's EUS, before, during and after the mechanical stimulation of the urogenital structures.The CrEUS, MeEUS and CaEUS regions responded when brushing and squeezing the foreskin and glans as well as to penile and prostatic urethral distension. The CaEUS EMG amplitude (P 0.01) and frequency (P 0.05) were lower in comparison to the CrEUS and MeEUS responses to the mechanical stimulation. In addition, the CaEUS was characterized by a short or no afterdischarge. In contrast, the CrEUS and MeEUS responded by presenting a long discharge after the penile or prostatic urethral distension.The activity of the EUS is modulated by both, cutaneous and visceral genitourinary stimuli, with motor units being activated by mechanoreceptors located in the foreskin, glans, bladder, and urethra. The CrEUS, MeEUS and CaEUS have differential EMG patterns, indicating that the EUS consists of three anatomically and functionally different regions. Precise coordination in the muscular activity of these regions may be crucial for the control of male expulsive urethral functions, i.e., during voiding and ejaculation. Neurourol. Urodynam. 35:914-919, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The first lineage allocation during mouse development forms the trophectoderm and inner cell mass, in which Cdx2 and Pou5f1 display reciprocal expression. Yet Cdx2 is not required for trophectoderm specification in other mammals, such as the human, cow, pig, or in two marsupials, the tammar and opossum. The role of Cdx2 and Pou5f1 in the first lineage allocation of Sminthopsis macroura, the stripe-faced dunnart, is unknown. In this study, expression of Cdx2 and Pou5f1 during oogenesis, development from cleavage to blastocyst stages, and in the allocation of the first three lineages was analyzed for this dunnart. Cdx2 mRNA was present in late antral-stage oocytes, but not present again until Day 5.5. Pou5f1 mRNA was present from primary follicles to zygotes, and then expression resumed starting at the early unilaminar blastocyst stage. All cleavage stages and the pluriblast and trophoblast cells co-expressed CDX2 and POU5F1 proteins, which persisted until early stages of hypoblast formation. Hypoblast cells also show co-localisation of POU5F1 and CDX2 once they were allocated, and this persisted during their division and migration. Our studies suggest that CDX2, and possibly POU5F1, are maternal proteins, and that the first lineage to differentiate is the trophoblast, which differentiates to trophectoderm after shell loss one day before implantation. In the stripe-faced dunnart, cleavage cells, as well as trophoblast and pluriblast cells, are polarized, suggesting the continued presence of CDX2 in both lineages until late blastocyst stages may play a role in the formation and maintenance of polarity.

The aims of the present study were to determine in female rats whether abdominal muscle discharges during normal voiding and to describe the effect of bladder irritation on this visceromotor activity. The sensory pathway of this reflex was also determined. Electromyograms (EMGs) indicated that in awake rats, the abdominal muscle was consistently activated during spontaneous voiding and during voiding induced by saline infusion. Similarly, in anesthetized animals, the muscle discharged during urine expulsion. The abdominal EMG activity was not abolished by hypogastric (Hgnx) or sensory pudendal neurectomy (SPdnx). SPdnx dramatically decreased the intercontraction interval and voided volume. Acetic acid infusion reduced the intercontraction interval and increased bladder contraction duration. It also reduced the pressure threshold for evoking the abdominal EMG response and increased the EMG duration and amplitude. Although SPdnx and Hgnx modified some urodynamic parameters, they did not reverse the acetic acid effect on EMG activity. Thus the afferents activating the visceromotor reflex during normal voiding and the increased reflex in response to acetic acid are probably both carried by the pelvic nerve. Abdominal muscle activity induced by bladder distension has been considered to be a pain marker. However, we conclude that in female rats, the abdominal muscle is reflexively activated during physiological urine expulsion. On the other hand, bladder irritation is marked by an exaggeration of this abdominal visceromotor reflex.

In the present study we examined the possibility that striated muscle activity may underlie sexually dimorphic micturition in rats. Micturition dynamics, the gross anatomy of the external urethral sphincter, and the participation of the striated perineal muscles in micturition were compared in urethane-anesthetized adult male and female rats. Bladder contraction characteristics, particularly the magnitude of bladder high-frequency pressure waves during voiding, differed between sexes. Dissections indicated that the sphincter was more extensive and thicker in males than in females. Electromyography showed that in both sexes the sphincter discharged in bursts that correlated with the rising phase of high-frequency bladder pressure oscillations. Regional differences in discharge pattern were seen in the sphincters of males, with the proximal part of the sphincter showing components activated during bladder filling. Bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernosus, and cremaster muscles also were activated during bladder contraction in males. In both sexes transection of the motor branch of the lumbosacral plexus eliminated the bladder high-frequency oscillations and reduced voided volume. Neurectomy did not affect bladder pressure but reduced voiding efficiency by 45% in males. In females the bladder pressure was dramatically decreased, but voiding efficiency only decreased by 24%. Our findings suggest that, in rats, striated perineal muscles contribute to the sexually dimorphic micturition. Activity of the dimorphic perineal muscles may regulate genital and urinary urethra expulsive functions, helping to expel seminal plug and fluids through the long urethra in the male.