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Anthracnose or ripe rot of blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) is caused predominantly by Colletotrichum fioriniae, which belongs to the C. acutatum complex since it has cylindrical conidia with both ends acute (2). In May 2013, an isolate typical of the C. boninense complex (cylindrical conidia with both ends rounded) (1) was obtained from leaves of southern highbush blueberry seedlings in a nursery located in the municipality of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The symptoms initially appear as circular, necrotic lesions 10 to 30 mm in diameter. At high humidity, lesions expand rapidly to cover the entire foliar surface, leading to severe defoliation of the seedlings. This disease occurred in 100% of the seedlings, causing serious losses in the nursery. A single-conidium culture was obtained on potato-dextrose-agar (PDA) medium followed by morphological and molecular characterization. This culture was deposited at the culture collection of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil (Accession No. COAD 1741). Conidia were cylindrical, aseptate, hyaline, rounded at both ends, and 11 to 16 μm (μ = 13) long and 5 to 6 μm (μ = 5.5) wide (n = 100). For the molecular characterization, sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and β-tubulin 2 (βt) regions were obtained and deposited in GenBank (KM055653 to KM055655). A search of the Q-bank Fungi database using the ITS, βt, and GAPDH sequences retrieved C. karstii with 100, 99, and 100% identities, respectively. Based on morphological and molecular data, the fungus was identified as C. karstii. To verify pathogenicity, 20 leaves from the upper branches of 1-m tall blueberry seedlings were inoculated with 6-mm-diameter plugs from a 7-day-old culture. PDA plugs were placed on the leaves of seedlings to serve as the control. Initially, seedlings were maintained at 25 ± 2°C in the dark. Thereafter, seedlings were covered with plastic bags and transferred to a greenhouse. Anthracnose symptoms on the leaves were observed at 5 days after inoculation. Seedlings from the control treatment remained symptomless. The fungus was re-isolated from the necrotic lesions, confirming Koch's postulates. C. karstii has a wide host range and in Brazil has been previously reported on Bombax aquaticum, Carica papaya, Eugenia uniflora, Malus domestica, and Mangifera indica (1,3,4). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of C. karstii causing anthracnose on the leaves of blueberry seedlings in Brazil or worldwide. Due to the high disease severity and intense defoliation of blueberry seedlings, this pathogen represents a new threat for nurseries. Therefore, control strategies should be investigated for this disease. References: (1) U. Damm et al. Stud. Mycol. 73:1, 2012. (2) U. Damm et al. Stud. Mycol. 73:37, 2012. (3) Lima et al. Plant Dis. 97:1248, 2014. (4) Velho et al. Plant Dis. 98:157, 2014.

Coffee leaf rust, caused by Hemileia vastatrix, is the most devastating disease of coffee. Since limited information is available in the literature on silicon (Si) affecting plant diseases in coffee, this study was designed to investigate foliar application of potassium silicate (PS), a source of soluble (Si), on infection process of coffee leaf rust at the microscopic level. The foliar Si concentration for plants sprayed with water and PS has no significant difference (0.24 and 0.30 dag kg−1, respectively). X-ray microanalysis indicated that the deposition of Si on the leaves of the plants that were sprayed with PS was greater in comparison to the leaf samples from the plants sprayed with water. Rust severity on leaves of plants sprayed with water or sprayed with PS reached 44% and 32%, respectively, at 36 days after inoculation (dai). Plates of polymerised PS were observed on the leaf surfaces of the plants sprayed with the product, in contrast to its absence on the leaf surfaces of plants sprayed with water. At 36 dai, a greater number of uredia were observed on the leaf surfaces of plants sprayed with water in comparison to the leaf surfaces of plants sprayed with PS. On fractured leaf tissues that were sprayed with PS, less fungal colonisation was observed in comparison to the leaves of plants sprayed with water. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that the effect of foliar-applied Si on the control of the coffee leaf rust development may be attributed to the physical role of the polymerised PS, its osmotic effect against urediniospores germination, or both.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of silicon (Si) on the resistance of tomato plants (cv. Santa Clara) to bacterial speck, caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst). Tomatoes were grown in soil without calcium silicate (control), in soil without calcium silicate and sprayed with Supa Sílica® (2 mL/L) (SS) and in soil with calcium silicate (0.16 g/kg of soil) (CS). The effect of SS on the growth of Pst was evaluated in vitro. There was no significant difference among the treatments for foliar Si concentration and incubation period. No significant differences were observed between the control and CS for the number of lesions per plant (NLP) and bacterial speck severity estimated by the software QUANT. The NLP was significantly reduced with SS spray. There was a negative linear response of in vitro Pst growth to the SS rates. Peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase and glucanase activities were significantly higher for plants sprayed with SS and grown in soil with CS compared to the control treatment. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and lypoxygenase activities were significantly higher for plants grown in soil with CS compared to the control. The concentration of malondialdehyde was significantly higher for plants sprayed with SS compared to the control at 0 and 7 dai. The results of this study indicate that the symptoms of bacterial speck are reduced when plants are sprayed with SS, which can be linked to the direct effect of this product against Pst rather than the potentation of host defense responses.

A brusone, causada por Pyricularia oryzae, é a doença fúngica mais importante do arroz no mundo. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar o suprimento radicular e foliar de silício solúvel (Si) na resistência do arroz à brusone. A aplicação de Si solúvel para as raízes das plantas de arroz aumentou a concentração de Si nos tecidos foliares quando comparados aos de plantas cultivadas em solo suprido com silicato de cálcio. Não houve aumento na concentração foliar de Si após a aplicação de Si solúvel, independentemente de as folhas terem sido lavadas ou não antes da análise. Foi demonstrado por microanálise de raios-X que a deposição de Si foi muito semelhante na epiderme de plantas pulverizadas com Si solúvel, com raiz supridas com Si solúvel ou cultivadas em solo com silicato de cálcio. O tamanho da lesão, o número de lesões por cm2 de folha e a área abaixo da curva de progresso da brusone foram reduzidos em plantas cultivadas em solos que receberam a aplicação de Si solúvel ou foram supridas com silicato de cálcio. Os resultados deste estudo demonstram que o fornecimento de Si solúvel às raízes ou a sua pulverização sobre as folhas de arroz podem diminuir os sintomas da brusone. Blast, caused by Pyricularia oryzae, is the most important fungal disease of rice worldwide. This study aimed to compare root and foliar supply of soluble silicon (Si) on rice resistance to blast. The application of soluble Si to the roots increased Si concentration in leaf tissues as compare to plants grown in soil amended with calcium silicate. There was no increase in leaf Si concentration after soluble Si spray, regardless if the leaves were washed or not before analysis. X-ray microanalysis revealed that Si deposition was very similar on the leaf epidermis of plants sprayed with soluble Si, root amended with soluble Si or grown in soil amended with calcium silicate. The lesion size, the number of lesions per cm2 of leaf and the area under blast progress curve were reduced for rice plants grown in soil that received the application of soluble Si or was amended with calcium silicate. The results of this study showed that the supply of soluble Si to the roots or its spray onto to the rice leaves can decrease blast symptoms.

Physical resistance of leaf sheaths of rice plants supplied with silicon and infected by Rhizoctonia solani This study aimed to associate the silicon (Si) deposition on sheaths of rice plants with an increase in physical resistance against infection by Rhizoctonia solani. Plants from the susceptible cultivars BR-Irga 409 and Labelle were grown in nutrient solution containing (+Si) or not (-Si) Si. Si concentration on sheaths of plants supplied with Si and inoculated with R. solani significantly increased compared to plants non-supplied with Si, reducing the relative lesion length at 96 hours after inoculation (hai). There were significant differences between -Si and +Si treatments for the force required of a metal needle to pass through the sheaths at 48 and 72 hai. The greater physical resistance at 24 hai was due to the fact that R. solani was growing on sheath tissue without destroying it, which could be proved by the absence of symptoms. After this period, the resistance decreased due to the rapid R. solani growth. However, on sheaths of plants supplied with Si, the force required for the needle to penetrate was higher at 48 and 72 hai. The sheath resistance of plants supplied with Si to infection by R. solani can be explained partly by the greater physical resistance due to Si deposition.

No primeiro experimento, plantas de cafeeiro com três pares de folhas foram pulverizadas com silicato de potássio (K2SiO3), epoxiconazole, acibenzolar-S-metil (ASM) e água destilada de duas maneiras: pulverização do 3º par de folhas, a partir do ápice, protegendo o 2º par de folhas ou pulverização de um par de folhas da lateral esquerda da planta e protegendo o par de folhas da lateral direita. Após 24 h, a face abaxial dos pares de folhas protegidos foi inoculada com Hemileia vastatrix. No segundo experimento, o 3º par de folhas de plantas, a partir do ápice, foi pulverizado com K2SiO3, ASM e água destilada protegendo o 2º par de folhas. Aos 1, 5, 15, 25 e 35 dias após aplicação dos produtos, a face abaxial do 2º (proteção sistêmica) e do 3º par de folhas (proteção local) de oito plantas de cada tratamento foram inoculadas com H. vastatrix. O K2SiO3 pulverizado no 3º par de folhas ou em um par de folhas da lateral esquerda foi ineficiente em aumentar a concentração de silício e reduzir a intensidade da esporulação (IE), o número total de pústulas (NTP) por folha e a severidade da ferrugem no 2º par de folhas ou no par de folhas da lateral direita, ao contrário do epoxiconazole e do ASM, os quais apresentaram sistemicidade na planta. A pulverização do K2SiO3 no 3º par de folhas também não garantiu, devido a sua natureza não sistêmica, redução da IE, do NTP e da severidade da ferrugem comparado com a proteção local. Os resultados desse trabalho apontam para a possibilidade de se utilizar a pulverização com silicato de potássio para reduzir a intensidade da ferrugem do cafeeiro preventivamente. In the first experiment, coffee plants with three pairs of leaves were sprayed with potassium silicate (K2SiO3), epoxiconazole, acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM), and distilled water in two different ways: spraying the 3rd pair of leaves from the apex and protecting the 2nd pair of leaves or spraying the two pair of leaves on the left side of the plant and protecting the pair of leaves on the right side. After 24 h, the abaxial surface of the protected pair of leaves was inoculated with Hemileia vastatrix. In the second experiment, the 3rd pair of leaves from the apex was sprayed with K2SiO3, ASM, and distilled water and the 2nd pair of leaves was protected. At 1, 5, 15, 25, and 35 days after products application, the abaxial surface of 2nd (systemic protection) and the 3rd pair of leaves (local protection) of eight plants per treatment were inoculated with H. vastatrix. The K2SiO3 spray on the 3rd pair of leaves or on the pair of leaves on the left side was ineffective in increasing silicon concentration and also decreasing the intensity of sporulation (IE), the total number of pustules (TNP) per leaf, and rust severity on the 2nd pair of leaves or in the pair of leaves on the right side, unlike the epoxiconazole and the ASM, which exhibited systemicity in the plant. The K2SiO3 sprayed in the 3rd pair of leaves also did not guarantee, due to its non-systemic action, reduction in the IE, TNP, and rust severity compared to its local protection. The findings of this study show the possibility of using potassium silicate spray to reduce the intensity of coffee leaf rust preventively.

Blast, caused by Pyricularia grisea, is one of the most important diseases of wheat. The effects of silicon (Si) on this wheat disease were studied. Plants of wheat cultivars Alianca and BH-1146 were grown in plastic pots containing Si-deficient soil amended with either calcium silicate (+Si) or calcium carbonate (−Si). The content of Si in leaf tissue was significantly increased by 14.8% for the +Si treatment. There were no significant differences between Si treatments for calcium content, so variations in Si only accounted for the observed differences in the level of blast resistance. The incubation period was significantly increased, on average, by 28.2% for the +Si treatment. The area under blast progress curve and the number of lesions per cm2 of leaf area significantly decreased by 31 and 45%, respectively, for the +Si treatment. There was no significant effect of Si on final disease severity. The concentration of total soluble phenolics observed in both cultivars supplied with Si did not apparently play any role in the increased blast resistance. The highest content of lignin-thioglycolic acid derivatives was found in plants from both cultivars with Si during the time period evaluated. Chitinase activity was high at the intermediate stages of fungal infection in both cultivars supplied with Si. Peroxidase activity was found to be high at the late stage of fungal infection for both cultivars supplied with Si and seemed to play a role in enhancing wheat blast resistance. Polyphenoloxidase activity also apparently had no effect on resistance for any of the treatments. These overall results revealed the potential of Si to decrease wheat susceptibility to blast.

Spot blotch, caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana, is one of the most important diseases on wheat. The effects of silicon (Si) on this wheat disease were studied. Plants of wheat cultivars BR-18 and BRS-208 were grown in plastic pots containing Si-deficient soil amended with either calcium silicate (+Si) or calcium carbonate (−Si). The content of Si in leaf tissue was significantly increased by 90.5% for the +Si treatment. There was no significant difference between Si treatments for calcium content, so variations in Si accounted for differences in the level of resistance to spot blotch. The incubation period was significantly increased by 40% for the +Si treatment. The area under spot blotch progress curve, number of lesions per cm2 of leaf area, and real disease severity significantly decreased by 62, 36 and 43.5% in +Si treatment. There was no significant effect of Si on lesion size. The role played by total soluble phenolics in the increased resistance to spot blotch of plants from both cultivars supplied with Si was not clear. Plants from cultivar BR-18 supplied with Si showed the highest values for concentration of lignin-thioglycolic acid derivatives during the most advanced stages of fungus infection. Chitinase activity was high at the most advanced stages of fungus infection on leaves from both cultivars supplied with Si and may have had an effect on fungus growth based on the reduction of the components of resistance evaluated. Peroxidase activity was found to be high only at 96 h after inoculation of both cultivars supplied with Si. Polyphenoloxidase activity had no apparent effect on resistance regardless of Si treatments. Results revealed that supplying Si to wheat plants can increase resistance against spot blotch.

Brown spot, caused by the fungus Bipolaris oryzae, is one of the most destructive diseases of rice. This study investigated the effect of zinc rates on the development of brown spot in rice. Rice plants (cv. ‘Metica-1′) were grown in hydroponic culture amended with Zn rates (applied as ZnSO4.7H2O) of 0, 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 μm and inoculated with B. oryzae. The foliar concentration of Zn was determined. Leaf samples were assessed for disease severity, and then, area under brown spot progress curve (AUBSPC) was calculated. The relationship between Zn concentrations on leaf tissues and the rates of this micronutrient was best described by a positive linear regression model, while the relationship between the Zn rates and the AUBSPC was best described with a positive quadratic regression model. The correlation between Zn concentrations on leaf tissues and AUBSPC was positive and significant (r = 0.68, P

This study was designed to characterize and describe host cell responses of stem tissue to mango wilt disease caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata in Brazil. Disease progress was followed, through time, in inoculated stems for two cultivars, ‘Ubá’ (field resistant) and ‘Haden’ (field susceptible). Stem sections from inoculated areas were examined using fluorescence light microscopy and transmission and scanning electron microscopy, coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis. Tissues from Ubá colonized by C. fimbriata had stronger autofluorescence than those from Haden. The X-ray microanalysis revealed that the tissues of Ubá had higher levels of insoluble sulfur and calcium than those of Haden. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that fungal hyphae, chlamydospores (aleurioconidia), and perithecia-like structures of C. fimbriata were more abundant in Haden relative to Ubá. At the ultrastructural level, pathogen hyphae had grown into the degraded walls of parenchyma, fiber cells, and xylem vessels in the tissue of Haden. However, in Ubá, plant cell walls were rarely degraded and hyphae were often surrounded by dense, amorphous granular materials and hyphae appeared to have died. Taken together, the results of this study characterize the susceptible and resistant basal cell responses of mango stem tissue to infection by C. fimbriata.

This study investigated the effect of silicon (Si) on the photosynthetic gas exchange parameters (net CO2 assimilation rate [A], stomatal conductance to water vapor [gs], internal CO2 concentration [Ci], and transpiration rate [E]) and chlorophyll fluorescence a parameters (maximum quantum quenching [Fv/Fm and Fv′/Fm′], photochemical [qP] and nonphotochemical [NPQ] quenching coefficients, and electron transport rate [ETR]) in wheat plants grown in a nutrient solution containing 0 mM (–Si) or 2 mM (+Si) Si and noninoculated or inoculated with Pyricularia oryzae. Blast severity decreased due to higher foliar Si concentration. For the inoculated +Si plants, A, gs, and E were significantly higher in contrast to the inoculated –Si plants. For the inoculated +Si plants, significant differences of Fv/Fm between the –Si and +Si plants occurred at 48, 96, and 120 h after inoculation (hai) and at 72, 96, and 120 hai for Fv′/Fm′. The Fv/Fm and Fv′/Fm′, in addition to total chlorophyll concentration (a + b) and the chlorophyll a/b ratio, significantly decreased in the –Si plants compared with the +Si plants. Significant differences between the –Si and +Si inoculated plants occurred for qP, NPQ, and ETR. The supply of Si contributed to decrease blast severity in addition to improving gas exchange performance and causing less dysfunction at the photochemical level.

Resende, R. S., Rodrigues, F. A., Cavatte, P. C., Martins, S. C. V., Moreira, W. R., Chaves, A. R. M., and DaMatta, F. M. 2012. Leaf gas exchange and oxidative stress in sorghum plants supplied with silicon and infected by Colletotrichum sublineolum. Phytopathology 102:892-898. Considering the economic importance of anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum sublineolum, and silicon (Si) to enhance sorghum resistance against this disease, this study aimed to investigate the effect of this element on leaf gas exchange and also the antioxidative system when infected by C. sublineolum. Plants from sorghum line CMSXS142 (BR 009 [Tx623] – Texas), growing in hydroponic culture with (+Si, 2 mM) or without (–Si) Si, were inoculated with C. sublineolum. Disease severity was assessed at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 days after inoculation (dai) and data were used to calculate the area under anthracnose progress curve (AUAPC). Further, the net carbon assimilation rate (A), stomatal conductance to water vapor (gs), internal-to-ambient CO2 concentration ratio (Ci/Ca), and transpiration rate (E); the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase (GR); the electrolyte leakage (EL), and the concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined. The AUAPC was reduced by 86% for the +Si plants compared with the –Si plants. The values of A, gs, and E were lower upon inoculation of –Si plants in contrast to inoculated +Si plants with decreases of 31 and 60% for A, 34 and 61% for gs, and 27 and 57% for E, respectively, at 4 and 8 dai. For the noninoculated plants, there was no significant difference between the –Si and +Si treatments for the values of A, gs, and E. The Ci/Ca ratio was similar between the –Si and +Si treatments, regardless of the pathogen inoculation. The activities of SOD, CAT, APX, and GR tended to be higher in the +Si plants compared with the –Si plants upon inoculation with C. sublineolum. The EL significantly increased for –Si plants compared with +Si plants. The MDA concentration significantly increased by 31 and 38% at 4 and 8 dai, respectively, for the –Si plants compared with the +Si plants. Based on these results, Si may have a positive effect on sorghum physiology when infected by C. sublineolum through the maintenance of carbon fixation and also by enhancing the antioxidant system, which resulted in an increase in reactive oxygen species scavenging and, ultimately, reduced damage to the cell membranes.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito do silício (Si) no progresso da mancha marrom, causada por Bipolaris sorokiniana, na folha bandeira de plantas de trigo. Plantas das cultivares de trigo BR-18 e BRS-208 foram crescidas em vasos contendo 0 e 0,30 g Si/kg de solo e inoculadas aos 45 dias após emergência. Avaliou-se a severidade da mancha marrom às 48, 72 e 96 horas após a inoculação das plantas e os dados obtidos foram utilizados para calcular a área abaixo da curva do progresso da mancha marrom (AACPMM). Determinou-se também a concentração foliar de Si e cálcio. A concentração de Si na folha bandeira das plantas supridas com Si foi 90,5% superior do que foi obtido para as plantas não supridas com esse elemento. A severidade da mancha marrom na folha bandeira foi significativamente menor nas plantas supridas com Si em todas as épocas de avaliação. Houve redução de 58,5% na AACPMM na folha bandeira das plantas supridas com Si. Não houve diferença significativa entre os tratamentos -Si e +Si para a concentração foliar de cálcio. Não houve diferença entre as duas cultivares para a concentração foliar de Si e a AACPMM, mas a concentração foliar de cálcio foi maior para a cultivar BR-18 do que para a cultivar BRS-208. Houve correlação negativa (r = -0,59) entre a concentração foliar de Si e a AACPMM. Com os resultados obtidos nesse estudo, observou-se um efeito positivo do Si em aumentar a resistência da folha bandeira de plantas de trigo à infecção por B. sorokiniana e ao mesmo tempo garantir uma maior produção de grãos dada à importância fisiológica dessa folha, em particular. This study aimed to determine the effect of silicon (Si) on the progress of spot blotch, caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana, on wheat leaf flag. Wheat plants of cultivars BR-18 and BRS-208 were grown in pots containing 0 and 0.30 g Si/kg of soil and inoculated at 45 days after emergence. Spot blotch severity was evaluated at 48, 72, and 96 hours after inoculation and data were used to calculate the area under spot blotch progress curve (AUSBPC). The Si and calcium concentrations on leaf tissue were also determined. The Si concentration on leaf flag of plants supplied with Si was 90.5% higher compared to plants non-supplied with this element. Spot blotch severity was significantly lower on leaf flags of plants supplied with Si at all evaluation times. There was a reduction of 58.5% in AUSBPC on leaf flag of plants supplied with Si. There was no significant difference between -Si and +Si treatments for calcium concentration on leaf tissue. There was no significant difference between the two cultivars for Si concentration on leaf tissue and AUSBPC, but calcium concentration on leaf tissue was higher for cultivar BR-18 than for cultivar BRS-208. The correlation between Si concentration on leaf tissue and AUSBPC was negative (r = -0.59). The results of this study showed a positive effect of Si on increasing wheat leaf flag resistance against infection by B. sorokiniana, considering the importance of this leaf in particular for a gain in yield.