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The use of disposable plastics and their subsequent environmental impacts are topics of increasing concern in modern society. Medical, including veterinary, sectors are major contributors to plastic waste production. While there is an existing body of literature on the use and reduction of disposable plastics in the human medical sector, few studies, if any, have specifically investigated the use of plastics within the veterinary field. The overall aim of this pilot study was to investigate Australian veterinarians regarding their attitudes toward the ways in which they use disposable plastic in their work and personal lives.

Q fever is an important zoonotic disease perceived to be an occupational hazard for those working with livestock. Outbreaks involving large numbers of people are uncommon, but the increasing case incidence coupled with changing environmental and industry conditions that promote transmission of Q fever has raised concerns that large and serious outbreaks could become more frequent. The aim of this study was to use expert opinion to better understand how large Q fever outbreaks might occur in an Australian context and to document factors believed to be drivers of disease transmission. Focus groups were conducted with human and animal health professionals across several Australian states. All discussions were recorded, transcribed verbatim and imported into NVIVO for thematic analysis. Four anthropogenic risk factors (disease awareness, industry practices, land use, human behaviour) and three ecological risk factors (physical environment, agent dissemination, animal hosts) emerged from the data. Analysis of expert opinions pointed to the existence of numerous scenarios in which Q fever outbreaks could occur, many of which depict acquisition in the wider community outside of traditional at-risk occupations. This perception of the expansion of Q fever from occupational-acquisition to community-acquisition is driven by greater overarching economic, political and socio-cultural influences that govern the way in which people live and work. Findings from this study highlight that outbreaks are complex phenomena that involve the convergence of diverse elements, not just that of the pathogen and host, but also the physical, political and socioeconomic environments in which they interact. A review of the approaches to prevent and manage Q fever outbreaks will require a multisectorial approach and strengthening of community education, communication and engagement so that all stakeholders become an integrated part of outbreak mitigation and response.

OBJECTIVES To elucidate veterinarians' and horse owners' perceptions towards the use of Hendra virus (HeV) antibody titre testing and how it influences veterinary advice. METHODS Six semi-structured phone interviews were conducted with veterinarians who have submitted samples for HeV antibody titre testing. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and thematically analysed to identify and report common themes within the data. RESULTS Veterinarians are predominantly using the titre tests as an alternative to vaccination due to clients' fear of vaccine reactions. The high cost of titre testing, the difficulty interpreting titre results and a lack of titre test recognition by authorities were the major barriers reported to using this test. Some veterinarians detailed difficulties communicating titre test procedures and results to their clients. The majority of veterinarians accepted titres of 64 or greater as evidence of protective immunity and would rely on those results for 12 months. However, there was discrepancy of these values and the level of confidence veterinarians had in interpreting the results of HeV antibody titre tests varied. CONCLUSION This study has provided an overview of the attitudes of horse owners and veterinarians towards HeV antibody titre testing. Although evidence for HeV vaccination titres as an indication of protective immunity is still inadequate, it will assist veterinarians in interpreting and communicating titre results.

The largest Australian farm-based outbreak of Q fever originated from a dairy goat herd. We surveyed commercial dairy goat farms across Australia by testing bulk tank milk (BTM) samples using a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and two quantitative polymerase chain reactions (PCRs). Of the 66 commercial dairy goat herds on record, managers from 61 herds were contacted and 49 provided BTM samples. Five of the surveyed herds were positive on at least one of the diagnostic tests, thus herd-level apparent prevalence was 10% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4 to 22). True prevalence was estimated to be 3% (95% credible interval: 0 to 18). Herd managers completed a questionnaire on herd management, biosecurity and hygiene practices and risk factors were investigated using multivariable logistic regression. Herds with900 milking does (the upper quartile) were more likely to be Coxiella burnetii positive (odds ratio = 6.75; 95% CI 1.65 to 27.7) compared with farms with ≤900 milking does. The odds of BTM positivity increased by a factor of 2.53 (95% CI 1.51 to 4.22) for each order of magnitude increase in the number of goats per acre. C. burnetii was not detected in samples from the majority of the Australian dairy goat herds suggesting there is an opportunity to protect the industry and contain this disease with strengthened biosecurity practices. Intensification appeared associated with an increased risk of positivity. Further investigation is required to discriminate the practices associated with an increased risk of introduction to disease-free herds, from practices associated with maintenance of C. burnetii infection in infected dairy goat herds.

Dog parks provide an ideal urban space where dogs and their owners can exercise, play, and socialise in a safe environment. However, these parks can also increase the risk of exposure to a series of infectious agents including canine soil-transmitted helminths (cSTHs) such as hookworms, roundworms, Strongyloides stercoralis, and Trichuris vulpis, which are endemic to Australia. In this study, we collected 1581 canine faecal samples in 190 urban parks across Australia and subjected these to faecal floatation and multiplex real-time PCRs (qPCR) to detect a range of cSTHs. In total, 44.2% of the parks sampled were contaminated with at least one species of cSTH, with hookworms being the most prevalent parasites (10.2%) followed by Trichuris spp. (1.3%) and Strongyloides spp. (1.2%). This is the first large-scale study investigating the contamination of urban parks with cSTHs in Australia, and the first nation-wide study to demonstrate the occurrence of Strongyloides spp. in canine faecal samples from urban areas in the country. This study reveals a high rate of contamination with cSTHs in dog parks in urban Australia, most of which having proven zoonotic potential. Preventive measures, including awareness-raising educational programmes promoting responsible pet ownership, should be encouraged to minimise the health risks associated with cSTHs for both dogs and humans.

Brucella suis is a zoonotic disease of feral pigs that also affects pig hunting dogs, pig hunters, veterinarians and veterinary staff. In recent years the incidence of B. suis in the eastern Australian states of New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland (QLD) has increased. A cross-sectional study was conducted to document the seroprevalence, geographical extent and risk factors for B. suis in dogs at-risk of contracting the disease. Eligible dogs were those that were known to hunt or consume feral pig meat. Dogs were enrolled through private veterinary clinics and/or directly by District Veterinarians in six regions of NSW and QLD. Blood was collected by venepuncture and tested for B. suis antibodies using the Rose Bengal Test (RBT) followed by a Complement Fixation Test (CFT) if they returned a positive RBT. Owners were invited to complete a questionnaire on the dogs' signalment, husbandry including hunting practices and locations, and any clinical signs referable to brucellosis. Of the 317 dogs included in the prevalence survey, 21 were seropositive returning a survey-adjusted true seroprevalence of 9.3 (95% CI 0.45 to 18) B. suis positive dogs per 100 dogs at-risk. True seroprevalence ranged from 0 to 24 B. suis positive dogs per 100 across eastern Australia, with the highest prevalence in central west NSW and southern QLD. Adjusted for other factors, dogs that shared a household with other seropositive dogs and those that traveled away from their home regions to hunt were more likely to be seropositive. Clinical signs at presentation were not predictive of serostatus, with seropositive and seronegative dogs equally likely to present with signs consistent with brucellosis. The results obtained from this study show that B. suis exposure is relatively common in dogs that have contact with feral pigs, with one in 10 testing seropositive. Further studies are needed to understand the progression and risk of transmission from seropositive dogs.

Background Coxiella burnetii is the cause of Q fever, a zoonotic disease spread by aerosol transmission. This study investigated C. burnetii environmental contamination in and around an endemically infected, intensively managed dairy goat farm in Victoria, Australia. Methods Dust, soil and water were collected in and around kidding pens. Samplings were collected before, during and after each kidding season. Soil was sampled along a 500 m transect from the main kidding pen in the predominant wind direction to assess the risk of C. burnetii spread from the main farm shed as a point source. DNA extraction and quantitative PCRs targeting the IS1111 and com1 genes were performed. Analyses are ongoing to describe the change in the frequency of C. burnetii positive environmental samples as a function of distance from the main farm shed. Results Dust inside the kidding pen contained C. burnetii DNA at all time points, with higher loads during the kidding seasons. Soil samples were positive for both PCR targets and were evenly dispersed within close ranges (500 m) from the main farm shed. Only those water samples taken from close to the main farm shed were positive. Conclusions C. burnetii was readily found in dust and soil in and around a farm shed where coxiellosis was endemic. Further environmental sampling will allow us to estimate the distance over which C. burnetii contamination occurs around a known point source. Key messages Results of this study will provide information critical for estimating Q fever risk around livestock facilities.

Background Despite the potentially important role that intensively managed dairy goats play in the spread of Q fever, the prevalence of Coxiella burnetii among dairy goat herds in Australia is largely unknown. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to estimate the prevalence of coxiellosis-positive dairy goat herds in Australia and to identify risk factors associated with coxiellosis positivity. Methods Owners or managers of commercial dairy goat herds were contacted and asked to complete a questionnaire about risk factors for coxiellosis and to provide a bulk tank milk (BTM) sample. BTM samples were tested using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) targeting the Com1 and IS1111 sections of the C. burnetii genome. Questionnaire responses from coxiellosis positive and coxiellosis negative herds were compared using frequency cross-tabulations and multivariable logistic regression. Results Herd managers from 49 of the 61 commercial dairy goat herds in Australia took part in the study. Of this group, three BTM samples were found to be both ELISA and RT-PCR positive. Two BTM samples were ELISA positive but RT-PCR negative. There were 10 (95% CI 4.4 to 22) C. burnetii positive herds per 100 herds at risk. Conclusions The prevalence of coxiellosis among commercial dairy goat farms in Australia is relatively low. Key messages The Australian dairy goat industry should focus on biosecurity measures and risk management plans to reduce the probability of C. burnetii introduction.

Background VetCompass Australia collects de-identified data from primary-care, companion animal practices across Australia, providing a large, representative database. VetCompass data were used to investigate an outbreak of megaoesophagus in dogs in Australia in 2017/2018. A specific proprietary dogfood was hypothesized as the cause. Methods The instantaneous daily hazard of megaoesophagus for the period January 2012 to February 2018 was plotted using survival analyses. A case-control study focused on dog demographics and management practices was performed to determine risk factors for megaoesophagus. Results There was a 7-fold increase in the incidence rate of canine megaoesophagus from 2014 (0.11 [95% CI 0.02 to 0.58] cases per 100,000 dogs per day) to 2018 (0.82 [95% CI 0.19 to 4.2] cases per 100,000 dogs per day) with greater numbers diagnosed during summer months of the year. The odds of feeding one specific dry dogfood was 325 (95% CI 64 to 1644) times greater for cases, compared with controls. Conclusions Evidence obtained through this study strongly suggests that a specific dogfood was responsible for most cases. The food was recalled prior to completion of this research. Further investigation into incidence rates and seasonal patterns of canine megaoesophagus are ongoing. Key messages Use of aggregated, de-identified data collected across small animal practices in Australia allowed identification of trends and seasonal patterns of a rare disease in dogs for the first time and provides opportunity for surveillance of this and other companion animal diseases.

Lameness is an important concern in working equids of low- and middle-income communities (LMICs) with significant One Welfare implications. This study aims to determine the prevalence and influencing factors of lameness in working equids of LMICs. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to investigate pooled outcome prevalence using a random intercept regression model. Subgroup and sensitivity analysis were performed through meta-regression. A meta-analysis of study factors for lameness prevalence was performed. Sixty-four studies were included in the review. The pooled prevalence of lameness was 29.9% (n = 42, 95% CI 17–47%), while the pooled prevalence of gait abnormality was 62.9% (n = 12; 95% CI 31–87%). When considering both outcomes together, the pooled prevalence was 38.4% (n = 46; 95% CI 23–57%) with a significant (p = 0.02) difference between lameness (29.5%; 95% CI 16–48%) and gait abnormality (78.8%; 95% CI 40–95%). Species, country income level, gait assessed, and risk of bias did not significantly affect the pooled prevalence. Lower body condition scores, unresponsive attitudes, and old age were the most frequently reported factors positively associated with lameness-related outcomes. Working 7 days per week was positively associated with lameness. The standardization of outcome terminology, grading systems, and study factor categorization is recommended to enable more accurate interpretation and comparison between studies.

Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) infect 1.5 billion people and countless animals worldwide. In Australian Indigenous communities, STH infections have largely remained endemic despite control efforts, suggesting reservoirs of infection may exist. Dogs fulfil various important cultural, social and occupational roles in Australian Indigenous communities and are populous in these settings. Dogs may also harbour zoonotic STHs capable of producing morbidity and mortality in dogs and humans. This review provides an overview of human and zoonotic STH infections, identifies the Australian Indigenous locations affected and the parasite species and hosts involved. The meta-analysis provides estimates of individual study and pooled true prevalence of STH infections in Australian Indigenous communities and identifies knowledge gaps for further research on zoonotic or anthroponotic potential. A systematic literature search identified 45 eligible studies documenting the presence of Strongyloides stercoralis, Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma duodenale, Ancylostoma ceylanicum, undifferentiated hookworm, and Ascaris lumbricoides. Of these studies, 26 were also eligible for inclusion in meta-analysis to establish true prevalence in the light of imperfect diagnostic test sensitivity and specificity by Rogan-Gladen and Bayesian methods. These studies revealed pooled true prevalence estimates of 18.9% (95% CI 15.8–22.1) for human and canine S. stercoralis infections and 77.3% (95% CI 63.7–91.0) for canine A. caninum infections indicating continued endemicity, but considerably more heterogenous pooled estimates for canine A. ceylanicum infections, and A. duodenale, undifferentiated hookworm and T. trichiura in humans. This review suggests that the prevalence of STHs in Australian Indigenous communities has likely been underestimated, principally based on imperfect diagnostic tests. Potential misclassification of hookworm species in humans and dogs due to outdated methodology, also obscures this picture. High-quality contemporary studies are required to establish current true prevalence of parasite species in all relevant hosts to guide future policy development and control decisions under a culturally sound One Health framework.

Toxoplasma gondii is the zoonotic parasite responsible for toxoplasmosis in warm-blooded vertebrates. This systematic review compares and evaluates the available knowledge on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), their components, and performance in detecting T. gondii antibodies in animals. Four databases were searched for published scientific studies on T. gondii and ELISA, and 57 articles were included. Overall, indirect (95%) and in-house (67%) ELISAs were the most used types of test among the studies examined, but the ‘ID Screen® Toxoplasmosis Indirect Multi-species’ was common among commercially available tests. Varying diagnostic performance (sensitivity and specificity) and Kappa agreements were observed depending on the type of sample (serum, meat juice, milk), antigen (native, recombinant, chimeric) and antibody-binding reagents used. Combinations of recombinant and chimeric antigens resulted in better performance than native or single recombinant antigens. Protein A/G appeared to be useful in detecting IgG antibodies in a wide range of animal species due to its non-species-specific binding. One study reported cross-reactivity, with Hammondia hammondi and Eimeria spp. This is the first systematic review to descriptively compare ELISAs for the detection of T. gondii antibodies across different animal species.

Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the intracellular bacterium, Coxiella burnetii. Its primary mode of transmission is by inhalation of aerosols originating from infected animals and contaminated environments. The organism has a very low infective dose, can persist in the environment for long periods of time and large outbreaks fuelled by windborne spread have been previously reported. Detection of C. burnetii in the environment is therefore important during human and animal outbreak investigations and for the control and prevention of Q fever. This study aimed to systematically review and critically appraise the published literature on sampling methods used to detect C. burnetii from different environmental samples. A search of four electronic databases with subsequent hand searching identified 47 eligible articles published since 1935. These articles described sampling of dust, air, soil and liquids in attempts to detect C. burnetii during 19 Q fever outbreaks and in 28 endemic settings. Environmental positivity was most commonly associated with ruminant livestock populations. Evidence describing spatio-temporal characteristics and associated geographical dispersion gradients was limited. The most commonly tested sample type was dust which also yielded the highest bacterial loads of >108 bacteria/cloth. The MD8 (Sartorius) air sampler was used widely for air sampling. Soil was the only sample type for which a validated laboratory protocol was established specifically for C. burnetii. Each environmental sample type has its advantages and limitations which are discussed in detail and a simplified framework to guide decisions around environmental sampling for C. burnetii is provided. In any type of environmental sampling, it is recommended to use standardized and validated methods and to match the most ideal sampling strategy and timing with the research context. These conditions are essential to be considered when designing future Q fever management plans that involve environmental sampling for C. burnetii.

Background Epidemiological investigations were carried out following detection of an outbreak of megaoesophagus in Victorian Police working dogs in early 2018 and an increase in the number of canine megaoesophagus cases reported by companion animal veterinarians in Eastern Australia starting in late 2017. VetCompass Australia data were used to quantify the incidence of canine megaoesophagus for the period January 2012 to February 2018 and a matched case-control study carried out to identify individual animal risk factors for canine megaoesophagus in 2017–2018. Results There was a 7-fold increase in the incidence rate of canine megaoesophagus from 2014 (0.11 [95% CI 0.02 to 0.58] cases per 100,000 dogs per day) to 2018 (0.82 [95% CI 0.19 to 4.2] cases per 100,000 dogs per day). Since 2013, the incidence of megaoesophagus in Australia has shown a seasonal pattern, with greater numbers of cases diagnosed during the warmer months of the year. In the case-control study, use of Mars Petcare Advance Dermocare as a source of food was 325 (95% CI 64 to 1644) times greater for cases, compared with controls. Conclusions Our analyses provide evidence that the feeding of Advance Dermocare was responsible for the majority of cases in the outbreak of megaoesophagus in Eastern Australia in 2017–2018. The increase in the incidence rate of megaoesophagus in Australia since 2014–2015 warrants further investigation.

Additional file 1. Vet/owner questionnaire on canine megaoesophagus

In recent years, outbreaks of exotic as well as newly emerging infectious diseases have highlighted the importance of biosecurity for the Australian horse industry. As the first potentially fatal zoonosis transmissible from horses to humans in Australia, Hendra virus has emphasised the need to incorporate sound hygiene and general biosecurity practices into day-to-day horse management. Recommended measures are widely publicised, but implementation is at the discretion of the individual owner. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine current levels of biosecurity of horse owners and to identify factors influencing the uptake of practices utilising data from an online survey. Level of biosecurity (low, medium, high), as determined by horse owners' responses to a set of questions on the frequency of various biosecurity practices performed around healthy (9 items) and sick horses (10 items), was used as a composite outcome variable in ordinal logistic regression analyses. The majority of horse owners surveyed were female (90%), from the states of Queensland (45%) or New South Wales (37%), and were involved in either mainly competitive/equestrian sports (37%) or recreational horse activities (35%). Seventy-five percent of owners indicated that they follow at least one-third of the recommended practices regularly when handling their horses, resulting in medium to high levels of biosecurity. Main factors associated with a higher level of biosecurity were high self-rated standard of biosecurity, access to personal protective equipment, absence of flying foxes in the local area, a good sense of control over Hendra virus risk, likelihood of discussing a sick horse with a veterinarian and likelihood of suspecting Hendra virus in a sick horse. Comparison of the outcome variable with the self-rated standard of biosecurity showed that over- as well as underestimation occurred. This highlights the need for continuous communication and education to enhance awareness and understanding of what biosecurity is and how it aligns with good horsemanship. Overall, strengthened biosecurity practices will help to improve animal as well as human health and increase preparedness for future disease outbreaks.

Hendra virus causes sporadic zoonotic disease in Australia following spill over from flying foxes to horses and from horses to people. Prevention and risk mitigation strategies such as vaccination of horses or biosecurity and property management measures are widely publicised, but hinge on initiative and action taken by horse owners as they mediate management, care and treatment of their animals. Hence, underlying beliefs, values and attitudes of horse owners influence their uptake of recommended risk mitigation measures. We used a qualitative approach to investigate attitudes, perceptions and self-reported practices of horse owners in response to Hendra virus to gain a deeper understanding of their decision-making around prevention measures. Data presented here derive from a series of in-depth interviews with 27 horse owners from Hendra virus 'hot spot' areas in New South Wales and Queensland. Interviews explored previous experience, perceptions and resulting behaviour as well as communication around Hendra virus. All interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed in NVivo using thematic analysis. Analysis revealed four major themes: perception of Hendra virus as a risk and factors influencing this perception, Hendra virus risk mitigation strategies implemented by horse owners, perceived motivators and barriers of these strategies, and interaction of perceived risk, motivators and barriers in the decision-making process. Although Hendra virus disease was perceived as a serious threat to the health of horses and humans, individual risk perception diverged among horse owners. Perceived severity, likelihood and unpredictability as well as awareness and knowledge of Hendra virus, trust in information obtained and information pathways, demographic characteristics and personal experience were the main factors influencing Hendra virus risk perceptions. Other key determinants of horse owners' decision-making process were attitudes towards Hendra virus risk mitigation measures as well as perceived motivators and barriers thereof. Horse owners' awareness of the necessity to consider individual Hendra virus risk and adequate risk management strategies was described as a learning process, which changed over time. However, different perceptions of risk, barriers and motivators in combination with a weighing up of advantages and disadvantages resulted in different behaviours. These findings demonstrate the multifactorial determinants of cognitive mediating processes and facilitate a better understanding of horse owners' perspectives on preventive horse health measures. Furthermore, they provide valuable feedback to industry and government stakeholders on how to improve effective risk communication and encourage uptake of recommended risk mitigation measures.

Salmonella enterica serovar Wangata (S. Wangata) is an important cause of endemic salmonellosis in Australia, with human infections occurring from undefined sources. This investigation sought to examine possible environmental and zoonotic sources for human infections with S. Wangata in north-eastern New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The investigation adopted a One Health approach and was comprised of three complimentary components: a case–control study examining human risk factors; environmental and animal sampling; and genomic analysis of human, animal and environmental isolates. Forty-eight human S. Wangata cases were interviewed during a 6-month period from November 2016 to April 2017, together with 55 Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) controls and 130 neighbourhood controls. Indirect contact with bats/flying foxes (S. Typhimurium controls (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.63, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.06–6.48)) (neighbourhood controls (aOR 8.33, 95% CI 2.58–26.83)), wild frogs (aOR 3.65, 95% CI 1.32–10.07) and wild birds (aOR 6.93, 95% CI 2.29–21.00) were statistically associated with illness in multivariable analyses. S. Wangata was detected in dog faeces, wildlife scats and a compost specimen collected from the outdoor environments of cases’ residences. In addition, S. Wangata was detected in the faeces of wild birds and sea turtles in the investigation area. Genomic analysis revealed that S. Wangata isolates were relatively clonal. Our findings suggest that S. Wangata is present in the environment and may have a reservoir in wildlife populations in north-eastern NSW. Further investigation is required to better understand the occurrence of Salmonella in wildlife groups and to identify possible transmission pathways for human infections.

Toxoplasma gondii is the zoonotic parasite responsible for toxoplasmosis in warm-blooded vertebrates. This systematic review compares and evaluates the available knowledge on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), their components, and performance in detecting T. gondii antibodies in animals. Four databases were searched for published scientific studies on T. gondii and ELISA, and 57 articles were included. Overall, indirect (95%) and in-house (67%) ELISAs were the most used types of test among the studies examined, but the ‘ID Screen® Toxoplasmosis Indirect Multi-species’ was common among commercially available tests. Varying diagnostic performance (sensitivity and specificity) and Kappa agreements were observed depending on the type of sample (serum, meat juice, milk), antigen (native, recombinant, chimeric) and antibody-binding reagents used. Combinations of recombinant and chimeric antigens resulted in better performance than native or single recombinant antigens. Protein A/G appeared to be useful in detecting IgG antibodies in a wide range of animal species due to its non-species-specific binding. One study reported cross-reactivity, with Hammondia hammondi and Eimeria spp. This is the first systematic review to descriptively compare ELISAs for the detection of T. gondii antibodies across different animal species.

A number of gastrointestinal parasites have been reported to infect dogs in Nigeria, some of which have zoonotic potential. Of these, hookworms are the most prevalent, with both Ancylostoma caninum and Uncinaria stenocephala reported in the country. In this study, we subjected 203 hookworm microscopy-positive samples of the 885 individual faecal samples collected from dogs in Nigeria to a recently developed multiplex qPCR for the detection and characterisation of canine hookworm species. The qPCR demonstrated a diagnostic sensitivity of 98% (95% CI 95-99.4) allowing the detection of A. caninum and A. braziliense in 81.3% (165/203, 95% CI 75.3-86.1) and 51.2% (104/203, 95% CI 44.4-58) of the microscopy-positive faecal samples of dogs from Nigeria, respectively and 34.5% (70/203, 95% CI 28.3-41.3) of mixed infections with both hookworm species. The finding of A. braziliense is particularly worrisome given this is a well-known agent of persistent cutaneous larva migrans, commonly referred to as "creeping eruptions" in humans. Although this parasite has been diagnosed in locals and in people travelling in Nigeria suffering from dermatological illnesses, this represents the first molecular identification of A. braziliense in its canine reservoir in the country. These results update the occurrence and distribution of hookworm species affecting dogs in Nigeria highlighting the suitability of the newly developed multiplex qPCR assay as a high-throughput tool for the surveillance of zoonotic hookworms, globally.

Hendra virus (HeV) is an emerging bat-borne virus endemic in Australia that can be transmitted from horses to humans and has a high fatality rate for horses and people. Controversy surrounding HeV risk mitigation measures have strained the veterinarian-horse owner relationship. This study aimed to characterise the veterinarian-horse owner relationship in general and also in the context of HeV by analysing data derived from the 'Horse Owners and Hendra Virus: A Longitudinal Study to Evaluate Risk' (HHALTER) study. Australian horse owners were recruited via emails, social media and word-of-mouth for a series of five surveys that were administered online at six-monthly intervals over a two-year period to capture baseline knowledge, attitudes and practices of horse owners regarding HeV and any changes over time. In the current study, descriptive analyses of information sources were performed to understand the use of veterinarians as a HeV information source (Surveys 1 and 5; n = 1195 and n = 617). Ordinal logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine factors associated with the frequency of horse owner contact with a veterinarian (Survey 3; n = 636). This study found a relative increase over the study period in the proportion of horse owners who had used veterinarians as HeV information source in the last 12 months (from 51.9% to 88.3%). Owning more horses, being older, having a 'duty of care' for other people working with horses and deriving the main income from horse related business were factors associated with more frequent veterinary contact. Results suggest that traditional information sources such as workshops, information packs and risk training are likely to be used by horse owners. Smart phone applications should be considered for use in the future and require further investigation for horse health communication. The findings of this study may be helpful in optimising strategies for horse health information delivery.

Ross River virus (RRV) is Australia’s most epidemiologically important mosquito-borne disease. During RRV epidemics in the State of Victoria (such as 2010/11 and 2016/17) notifications can account for up to 30% of national RRV notifications. However, little is known about factors which can forecast RRV transmission in Victoria. We aimed to understand factors associated with RRV transmission in epidemiologically important regions of Victoria and establish an early warning forecast system. We developed negative binomial regression models to forecast human RRV notifications across 11 Local Government Areas (LGAs) using climatic, environmental, and oceanographic variables. Data were collected from July 2008 to June 2018. Data from July 2008 to June 2012 were used as a training data set, while July 2012 to June 2018 were used as a testing data set. Evapotranspiration and precipitation were found to be common factors for forecasting RRV notifications across sites. Several site-specific factors were also important in forecasting RRV notifications which varied between LGA. From the 11 LGAs examined, nine experienced an outbreak in 2011/12 of which the models for these sites were a good fit. All 11 LGAs experienced an outbreak in 2016/17, however only six LGAs could predict the outbreak using the same model. We document similarities and differences in factors useful for forecasting RRV notifications across Victoria and demonstrate that readily available and inexpensive climate and environmental data can be used to predict epidemic periods in some areas. Furthermore, we highlight in certain regions the complexity of RRV transmission where additional epidemiological information is needed to accurately predict RRV activity. Our findings have been applied to produce a Ross River virus Outbreak Surveillance System (ROSS) to aid in public health decision making in Victoria. Keywords: Arboviruses, Transmission, Mosquito-borne disease, Forecasting, Predicting epidemics, Epidemiology

OBJECTIVE: To determine the nature of serological responses in Australian horses using a commercial duplex indirect ELISA (iELISA) following vaccination against strangles. DESIGN: A group (n = 19) of client‐owned horses from five properties were recruited to receive a primary course of a Streptococcus equi subsp. equi (S. equi) extract vaccine. Serological responses were determined by duplex iELISA incorporating S. equi‐specific fragments of two cell wall proteins, SEQ2190 and SeM (antigens (Ag) A and C, respectively). METHODS: The horses were administered a primary strangles vaccination course. Blood was collected immediately prior to each of the three vaccinations at 2‐week intervals and additionally at 28 and 56 days following the 3rd vaccination (V3). RESULTS: Significant increases in mean antibody levels of horses following vaccination were limited only to AgC, which was significantly increased at T2/V3, 14 days following V2 (ratio of geometric means = 3.7; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.6, 8.4; P = 0.003). There was no increase in mean antibody to Ag A (ratio of geometric means = 1.4; 95% CI: 0.6, 3.2; P = 0.39). Four horses (22%) exceeded the test cut‐off for AgC following vaccination. CONCLUSION: Vaccination of Australian horses is unlikely to interfere greatly with detection of strangles using the duplex iELISA. No responses would be anticipated to AgA following vaccination with Equivac© S/Equivac© 2in1 and only a minority are likely to respond to AgC. We conclude that the results of this study validate the usefulness of the duplex iELISA to assist control measures for strangles outbreaks in Australian horse populations.

Background: Brucellosis, also known as undulant, Mediterranean or Malta fever, is a systemic infection that causes fever, sweats, arthralgias and myalgias. A globally important disease, brucellosis is re-emerging in Australia in association with feral pig hunting activities. Objective: This article aims to provide clinicians with an overview of brucellosis, covering epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, management and prevention. Discussion: Brucellosis should be suspected in all patients with non-specific, flu-like illness who fall into one of the major risk groups (feral pig hunters, overseas travellers and migrants). Depression is common and often severe, relative to other symptoms. Early diagnosis and treatment are important for preventing complications, which include osteoarticular, genitourinary or, more rarely, neurological or cardiovascular diseases. Diagnosing acute infections is based on serology and blood cultures; imaging and biopsy may be required for diagnosis of focal infections. Dual therapy with doxycycline and gentamicin is the recommended treatment. Relapse occurs in up to 10% of patients. Prevention is achieved through the use of protective gear during hunting ('Brucella suis'), and avoidance of unpasteurised dairy products in countries where 'B. melitensis' and 'B. abortus' occur in animals.

The role and significance of wildlife–livestock interfaces in disease ecology has largely been neglected, despite recent interest in animals as origins of emerging diseases in humans. Scoping review methods were applied to objectively assess the relative interest by the scientific community in infectious diseases at interfaces between wildlife and livestock, to characterize animal species and regions involved, as well as to identify trends over time. An extensive literature search combining wildlife, livestock, disease, and geographical search terms yielded 78,861 publications, of which 15,998 were included in the analysis. Publications dated from 1912 to 2013 and showed a continuous increasing trend, including a shift from parasitic to viral diseases over time. In particular there was a significant increase in publications on the artiodactyls–cattle and bird–poultry interface after 2002 and 2003, respectively. These trends could be traced to key disease events that stimulated public interest and research funding. Among the top 10 diseases identified by this review, the majority were zoonoses. Prominent wildlife–livestock interfaces resulted largely from interaction between phylogenetically closely related and/or sympatric species. The bird–poultry interface was the most frequently cited wildlife–livestock interface worldwide with other interfaces reflecting regional circumstances. This review provides the most comprehensive overview of research on infectious diseases at the wildlife–livestock interface to date.

Sub-Saharan Africa currently has the highest prevalence of malnutrition worldwide. In children under the age of 5 years, malnutrition can have long-term effects on physical and cognitive development, with implications at the national scale. Theoretically, livestock-based interventions are well placed to overcome constraints faced by micronutrient and/or food-based interventions. However, there is limited empirical evidence to support this hypothesis. This study utilised agriculture, nutrition and anthropometry data from the Millennium Villages Project to investigate relationships between livestock ownership, animal source foods (ASF) consumption and child nutritional outcomes across seven rural village clusters in Sub-Saharan Africa. Village clusters were located in different agro-ecological zones and included: Bonsaaso, Ghana; Mayange, Rwanda; Mwandama, Malawi; Tiby, Mali; Pampaida, Nigeria; Potou, Senegal; and Ruhiira, Uganda. Data from 1624 households (including 1543 children) were included in the analysis. Overall, the proportion of children with stunting, underweight or wasting across the seven village clusters was 40, 18 and 5%, respectively. Livestock ownership, ASF consumption and child nutritional outcomes varied between village clusters. Households that owned livestock were generally more likely to consume associated ASF. For example, the proportion of households that consumed milk was higher in households that owned cows compared to those that did not in Pampaida, Mayange and Ruhiira (P

In wireless local area networks, often a station can potentially associate with more than one access point (AP). Therefore, a relevant question is which AP to select 'best' from a list of candidate ones. In IEEE 802.11, the user simply associates to the AP with the strongest received signal strength. However, this may result in a significant load imbalance between several APs. Moreover, the multi-rate flexibility provided by several IEEE 802.11 variants can cause low bit rate stations to negatively affect high bit rate ones and consequently degrade the overall network throughput. This paper investigates the various aspects of 'best' AP selection for IEEE 802.11 systems. In detail, we first derive a new decision metric which can be used for AP selection. Using this metric, we propose two new selection mechanisms which are decentralised in the sense that the decision is performed by each station, given appropriate status information of each AP. In fact, only few bytes of status information have to be added to the Beacon and Probe Response frames which does not impose significant overhead. We show that our mechanism improves mean quality of service of all stations and better utilises network resources compared to the conventional one implemented today in IEEE 802.11 devices. Also, the schemes are appealing in terms of stability and provide their performance improvement even for denser or lighter network configurations. QC 20131128

The challenge to provide seamless mobility in the near future emerges as a key topic in various standardization bodies. This includes first of all the support of seamless handover between homogeneous networks. Distinct technologies--such as IEEE 802.11WLANs (Wi-Fi) and IEEE 802.16 MANs WiMAX--have recently augmented such support to existing standards to enable seamless homogeneous handover. Cellular networks, in contrast, already included this inherently from the start. Currently considerable effort goes into coupling of different radio access technologies. Therefore, the second key topic in standardization is seamless heterogeneous handovers. IEEE, IETF, as well as 3GPP consider different approaches toward architectures and protocols enabling seamless mobility management. In this work, we discuss recent and on-going standardization activities within IEEE, IETF, and 3GPP toward seamless homogeneous as well as heterogeneous mobility support.

The aims of this study were to assess the performance of FDG PET at PET/CT imaging for the detection of pulmonary metastases and to evaluate differences in lesion detectability on attenuation-corrected (AC) and non-attenuation corrected (NAC) PET images. The institutional PET/CT database was searched for patients with pulmonary metastases of 3–60 mm in diameter. Ninety-two patients with 438 metastases to the lungs were included in the study. The primary tumours were 33 malignant melanomas, 12 carcinomas of unknown primary, 11 colorectal carcinomas, eight differentiated thyroid carcinomas, seven aggressive non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas, six head and neck cancers, three breast cancers, two prostate cancers and ten others. Lesion detectability was visually compared between PET and CT and between AC and NAC PET images using a five-point scale. Of the 438 pulmonary metastases, 174 were detected with FDG PET (39.7%), six of them on NAC images only (not significant). Visual scores were higher on NAC images in 41.4% and equal in 54.6% of lesions. The sensitivity of FDG PET increased significantly from 0.405 for metastases of 5–7 mm in diameter to 0.784 for lesions of 8–10 mm and to 0.935 for lesions measuring 11–29 mm in diameter. No metastases smaller than 5 mm in diameter were seen on PET images. FDG PET/CT is useful for the assessment of pulmonary metastases. The frequency of lesion detection is similar for AC and NAC PET images. A reduced sensitivity of FDG PET has to be considered for lesions smaller than 11 mm in diameter.

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of homonymous visual field defects (HVFDs) on collision avoidance of dynamic obstacles at an intersection under virtual reality (VR) conditions. Overall performance was quantitatively assessed as the number of collisions at a virtual intersection at two difficulty levels. HVFDs were assessed by binocular semi-automated kinetic perimetry within the 90° visual field, stimulus III4e and the area of sparing within the affected hemifield (A-SPAR in deg 2 ) was calculated. The effect of A-SPAR, age, gender, side of brain lesion, time since brain lesion and presence of macular sparing on the number of collisions, as well as performance over time were investigated. Thirty patients (10 female, 20 male, age range: 19–71 years) with HVFDs due to unilateral vascular brain lesions and 30 group-age-matched subjects with normal visual fields were examined. The mean number of collisions was higher for patients and in the more difficult level they experienced more collisions with vehicles approaching from the blind side than the seeing side. Lower A-SPAR and increasing age were associated with decreasing performance. However, in agreement with previous studies, wide variability in performance among patients with identical visual field defects was observed and performance of some patients was similar to that of normal subjects. Both patients and healthy subjects displayed equal improvement of performance over time in the more difficult level. In conclusion, our results suggest that visual-field related parameters per se are inadequate in predicting successful collision avoidance. Individualized approaches which also consider compensatory strategies by means of eye and head movements should be introduced.

Simulation of handover processes is a complex methodological approach to performance evaluation as it involves modeling user mobility as well as technical details of the underlying communication system. On the one hand, depending on the degree of detail considered for both aspects, corresponding simulation models may become highly complex in terms of reflecting characteristics of the system under investigation. On the other hand, a thorough understanding and analysis of the research question to be elaborated, as well as considering handover-specific aspects of the analyzed technology can very well lead to a simple, compact, and satisfactory simulation model.

The IEEE 802.11 working group currently integrates the option of mesh networking into its standard for WLANs. In addition to WLAN meshes, future wireless networks will be expanded by multiple heterogeneous access technologies such as UMTS and WiMax. These technologies differ greatly regarding medium access scheme, network capacity, QoS support, choice of data rates, and other various parameters such as power consumption and AAA aspects. Even though current research focuses on different network access selection and handover strategies maximizing the utilization for such a heterogeneous network, it is still an open issue how to select “inefficient” mobiles as vertical handover candidates. This work presents a novel scheme for the selection of handover candidates which is exemplarily discussed for an IEEE 802.11 WLAN mesh. After exploring the design rationale of the decision metric, simulation studies show the impact of single and multiple handovers on remaining users in the cell.

This paper presents the concept and preliminary performance evaluation of a stochastic network discovery approach named opportunistic scanning. Therein, a station only pauses its communication for an extremely short time interval to scan for other technologies / systems. The selected scanning duration is short enough not to be noticeable by higher layer applications. We place this concept into the 802.11 mesh network context and evaluate 802.11 power saving as one possible signaling protocol used to pause the communication between the scanning station and its interlocutor. We herein derive the theoretical performance limits of opportunistic scanning in combination with 802.11 power save and present first results classifying the time required to find a neighboring technology / system at a given probability.

Objective: The anatomy of the human pupillary light reflex (PLR) pathway is a matter of debate. The aim of this study was twofold: namely, to investigate the association of a relative afferent pupillary defect (RAPD) in acquired suprageniculate lesions with the location and extent of the cerebral lesions. Further, we suggest a new strategy of lesion analysis by combining established techniques with the stereotaxic probabilistic cytoarchitectonic atlas developed by the Julich group. Methods: Twenty-three patients with homonymous visual field defects participated in this study. The RAPD was quantified clinically by two independent examiners with graded neutral density filters (swinging flashlight test). Using MRI in each individual, cerebral regions commonly affected in patients with a RAPD but spared in patients without a RAPD were determined and subsequently assessed by using cytoarchitectonic probabilistic maps. Results: A RAPD was present in 10/23 patients. Comparison of patients showing a RAPD vs those not showing a RAPD revealed that a region including the course of the optic radiation at its early beginning in the temporal white matter is commonly associated with a RAPD. Conclusions: It was demonstrated that the pupillary light reflex (PLR) depends on the input of suprageniculate neurons, thus supporting the involvement of a cortical pathway also. The site of integration of cortical signals in relation to the PLR into the pupillomotor pathway may be located suprageniculately in the vicinity of the lateral geniculate nucleus. Moreover, the suggested combination of established lesion analysis techniques with the probabilistic cytoarchitectonic atlas turned out to be a very helpful amelioration of stroke data analyses.

In wireless local area networks often a station can potentially associate with more than one access point. Therefore, a relevant question is which access point to select "best" from a list of candidate ones. In IEEE 802.11, the user simply associates to the access point with the strongest received signal strength. However, this may result in a significant load imbalance between several access points, as some accommodate a large number of stations while others are lightly loaded or even idle. Moreover, the multi-rate flexibility provided by several IEEE 802.11 variants can cause low bit rate stations to negatively affect high bit rate ones and consequently degrade the overall network throughput. This paper investigates the various aspects of "best" access point selection for IEEE 802.11 systems. In detail, we first derive a decision metric the selection can be based on. Using this metric we propose two new selection mechanisms which are decentralized in the sense that the decision is performed by each station, given appropriate status information of each access point. In fact, only few bytes of status information have to be added to the beacon and probe response frames which does not impose significant overhead. In addition, we show that our mechanism improves station quality of service and better utilizes network resources compared to the conventional one implemented today in IEEE 802.11 devices.

Homonymous visual field defects (HVFDs) are among the most common disorders that occur in the elderly after vascular brain damage and can have a major impact on quality of life (QOL). Aims of this study were to describe the vision-targeted, health-related QOL in patients with HVFDs after cerebrovascular lesion, and to determine the relationship between patients' self-reported difficulties and the characteristics of HVFDs in the binocular visual field.The German version of the 25-item National Eye Institute Visual Functioning Questionnaire (NEI-VFQ-25) was used. NEI-VFQ-25 scores for patients were compared to reference values of healthy German subjects from Franke (Z Med Psychol 7:178-184, 1999). Extent and location of absolute HVFDs were assessed by binocular semi-automated kinetic perimetry (SKP) within the 90 degrees visual field. Correlations of the NEI-VFQ-25 scores of patients with the area of sparing within the affected hemifield (A-SPAR) were estimated by Spearman's r (s).The mean NEI-VFQ-25 composite score for 33 patients (time span after brain injury at least 6 months) was 77.1, which was significantly lower (p0.0001) than the reference value for 360 healthy subjects (composite score = 90.6), and this was also the case for general vision, near activities, vision specific mental health, driving, colour, and peripheral vision. The score for general health was also significantly lower in patients than in reference subjects (p0.0001). A weak correlation of the composite score with A-SPAR (r (s) = 0.38) was observed.Our findings indicate that detectable decrements in vision-targeted, health-related QOL are observed in patients with homonymous visual field loss. A relationship of the perceived visual functioning with objective parameters is by definition difficult; however, understanding what components of visual function affect certain visual tasks, would help in developing more efficient, clinical assessment strategies. The results reveal a tendency for increasing QOL with advancing size of the area of sparing within the affected hemifield (A-SPAR). The lack of a strong correlation between NEI-VFQ-25 subscales and A-SPAR suggests that an assessment of the visual field may not accurately reflect patients' perceived difficulty in visual tasks. Additional consideration of visual exploration via eye and head movements may improve the correlation between visual function and its perception.

Power efficiency is one of the most critical factors for wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we present a family of receiver-initiated pseudo-asynchronous rendezvous schemes designed specifically to reduce sensor nodes' power consumption. We analyze their performances in terms of power efficiency and latency, under different static and dynamic system parameters. In addition, we verify our analysis by extensive network simulations. Based on the results, our proposed scheme demonstrates superior performance compared to previous proposed schemes

A retrospective analysis of 11 patients (ages 18-60 years) with diencephalic pathology documented by MRI (Siemens 1.5 T Magnetom, Aug. 1985-Feb. 1988) and CT comprised a workup of radiological findings and case notes. A ranking list of psychopathology scores (retrospective 8-item sum score) allowed dichotomization of the sample into a high and a low psychopathology group