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BackgroundEncephalitis continues to result in substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide. Advances in diagnosis and management have been limited, in part, by a lack of consensus on case definitions, standardized diagnostic approaches, and priorities for research.MethodsIn March 2012, the International Encephalitis Consortium, a committee begun in 2010 with members worldwide, held a meeting in Atlanta to discuss recent advances in encephalitis and to set priorities for future study.ResultsWe present a consensus document that proposes a standardized case definition and diagnostic guidelines for evaluation of adults and children with suspected encephalitis. In addition, areas of research priority, including host genetics and selected emerging infections, are discussed.ConclusionsWe anticipate that this document, representing a synthesis of our discussions and supported by literature, will serve as a practical aid to clinicians evaluating patients with suspected encephalitis and will identify key areas and approaches to advance our knowledge of encephalitis.

A soil-plant-atmosphere model was used to estimate gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET) of a tropical savanna in Australia. This paper describes model modifications required to simulate the substantial C4 grass understory together with C3 trees. The model was further improved to include a seasonal distribution of leaf area and foliar nitrogen through 10 canopy layers. Model outputs were compared with a 5-year eddy covariance dataset. Adding the C4 photosynthesis component improved the model efficiency and root-mean-squared error (RMSE) for total ecosystem GPP by better emulating annual peaks and troughs in GPP across wet and dry seasons. The C4 photosynthesis component had minimal impact on modelled values of ET. Outputs of GPP from the modified model agreed well with measured values, explaining between 79% and 90% of the variance and having a low RMSE (0.003-0.281gCm -2day -1). Approximately, 40% of total annual GPP was contributed by C4 grasses. Total (trees and grasses) wet season GPP was approximately 75-80% of total annual GPP. Light-use efficiency (LUE) was largest for the wet season and smallest in the dry season and C4 LUE was larger than that of the trees. A sensitivity analysis of GPP revealed that daily GPP was most sensitive to changes in leaf area index (LAI) and foliar nitrogen (N f) and relatively insensitive to changes in maximum carboxylation rate (V cmax), maximum electron transport rate (J max) and minimum leaf water potential (ψ min). The modified model was also able to represent daily and seasonal patterns in ET, (explaining 68-81% of variance) with a low RMSE (0.038-0.19mmday -1). Current values of N f, LAI and other parameters appear to be colimiting for maximizing GPP. By manipulating LAI and soil moisture content inputs, we show that modelled GPP is limited by light interception rather than water availability at this site. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Determining the water balance of a landscape is important to sustainable management of water, vegetation and land resources. Water flow through vegetation is the principle pathway for the discharge of water from Australian landscapes. The rate of this discharge is determined by solar radiation, leaf area index, vapour pressure deficit and soil moisture content. Tree transpiration from plantations and native woodlands and forests is an important determinant of the water balance of much of the Australian landscape. Several field-based methods of measuring tree and landscape water use, including sapflow techniques, eddy covariance and scintillometery are briefly discussed

Daily and annual rates of stand transpiration in a drought year and a non-drought year are compared in order to understand the adaptive responses of a remnant woodland to drought and predict the effect of land use change. Two methods were used to estimate stand transpiration. In the first, the ratio of sap velocity of a few trees measured for several hundred days to the mean sap velocity of many trees measured during brief sampling periods (generally 6-7 trees for 5 or 6 days), called the Esv method is used to scale temporally from the few intensive study periods. The second method used was the Penman-Monteith (P-M) equation (called the EPM method). Weather variables and soil moisture were used to predict canopy conductance, which in turn was used to predict daily and annual stand transpiration. Comparisons of daily transpiration estimated with the two methods showed larger values for the EPM method during a drought year and smaller values for the EPM when the rainfall was above average. Generally, though, annual estimates of stand transpiration were similar using the two methods. The Esv method produced an estimate of 318 mm (61% of rainfall) in the drought year and 443 mm (42%) in the year having above average rainfall. The EPM method estimated stand transpiration as 379 mm (73%) and 398 mm (37%), respectively, for the two years. Both estimates of annual stand transpiration demonstrated that the remnant forest showed resilience to an extreme and long-term drought. More importantly, the annual estimates showed that in dry years a larger proportion of rainfall was used as transpiration, and groundwater recharge was absent but in years with above average rainfall recharge was significantly increased. Changes in leaf area index were minimal between years and changes in stomatal conductance were the dominant mechanism for adapting to the drought. The remnant forest rapidly responded to increased water availability after the drought through a new flush of leaves and increased stomatal conductance. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The techniques used to identify nanoparticle size and shape characteristics are o vital importance in the developemnt of functional nanoparticles. Each technique offers different advantages: this work compares the two techniques of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis by charactering CeO2 nanoparticle specimens. Whole Powder Pattern Modelling (WPPM) is used to quantify the specimens dislocations and size characteristics from XRD data. Using admixed samples we test and extend the techniques. We show that XRD accurately characterises small crystallite distributions and that larger crystallite distributions necessitate further investigation.