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Climate change is expected to have strong implications for smallholder coffee farmers and implementing adaptation measures would lessen their vulnerabilities. Adaptation measures have been identified in literature, but how these can be implemented remains unclear. Current certification programmes have the potential to provide guidance on how sustainability criteria can be addressed and taken up by farmers. We identify climate change adaptation options, their scale of application, and the necessary implementation steps. We show that implementation complexity strongly increases with the degree of climate change. With modest climatic changes, incremental adaptations might suffice, but more substantial climatic change will require radical social-institutional changes for adaptation uptake and interventions. For the majority of smallholders the implementation of any measure is largely constrained by a lack of access to knowledge networks and training material, organisational support, and (mainly financial) resources. A landscape approach that encompasses collective action and coordinated cross-sector planning can overcome some of these barriers. Certification approaches can facilitate a move in this direction. Yet, the implementation of transformative adaptations requires visioning, realignment of policies and incentives, and new market formations. This entails a repositioning and revision of certification schemes to allow for more effective adaptation uptake for the benefit of smallholders and the environment., Environmental Science & Policy, 97, ISSN:1462-9011, ISSN:1873-6416

Mangrove forests are unique ecosystems that occur around the globe from the equator to the more temperate zones. Mangroves grow in the tidal planes of the oceans and seas, where salinity is high and life can be harsh. To survive these conditions mangroves have evolved specific adaptations like specialised root systems for water transport and salt secretion glands to get rid of excessive amounts of salt. One of the most important ecosystem services of the mangroves is the protection of river banks and the shoreline against flooding and erosion. Mangrove forests are worldwide in decline due to human activities, large parts of land of what they once covered have been degraded. This report will focus on the mangrove forests in Suriname, where the coast is still almost entirely dominated by mangrove forests and swamps.

Mangrove forests occur on coastlines and coastal rivers in the tropics, subtropics, and sometimes even in temperate areas. Mangroves grow under sometimes extreme environmental conditions like high levels of salinity, high inundation rates, or even permanent flooding and wave force. Mangrove trees have specialized adaptations like pneumatophores, specialized root systems, to withstand being flooded or to secrete excessive amounts of salt. Globally the area of mangrove forests is declining due to human activities, like deforestation and land-use change. This research is focused on the mangroves forests in Suriname. Mangrove ecosystems cover most of the coast and northern riversides of Suriname. The coast of Suriname is part of the highly dynamic Guiana coast. Originating from the amazon river, mudbanks migrate along the 1600 km muddy coast, including the Guiana coast, up to the Orinoco river. The passing by of the mudbanks causes accretion and erosion of the coast in high frequencies resulting in a very dynamic ecosystem, in combination with the extreme environmental circumstances. This is expected to result in a considerable variation in structural characteristics in mangrove forests in Suriname. Fromard et al. (2004) described a model of the succession of mangrove ecosystems in Suriname defining successional stages as young mangroves, adult mangroves, mature mangroves mixed stands and cemetery stands. The different stages are mostly defined by the trade-off in mean DBH and tree density and species composition.

To prevent landscape degradation and the continuing loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, decisions regarding landscape restoration should be based on their ‘true’ costs and benefits (i.e. broader welfare effects), including all externalities (positive and negative). In this paper, we present a framework consisting of nine steps to analyze, quantify and, where possible, monetize and capture the effects of changes in land use and management on the true costs and benefits. To illustrate this framework we applied it to large scale landscape restoration in a dryland region in SE Spain that is facing serious land degradation. Based on fieldwork involving several farms and expert interviews between 2017 and 2019, and additional literature review, we compared the costs and benefits, using the so-called Social- or Integrated Cost-Benefit Analyses (i-CBA) approach, of three land use systems: a multi-functional sustainable land use system (MFU) with those of almond monoculture under conventional management (CM) and under sustainable land management (SLM). Our study demonstrates that conventional financial CBA favors short-term, usually non-sustainable, land use. Using i-CBA gives a more realistic insight in the true welfare effects of landscape restoration. Our analysis also shows that a transition from conventional monoculture to multi-functional sustainable land use at the farm-level is only financially feasible when all externalities are accounted for and compensated. Our integrated approach enables the identification of opportunities and mechanisms to optimize multifunctional land use and capture the ‘full value’ of landscape restoration through so-called blended financing mechanisms. Eventually, sustainable land management can then become the norm rather than the exception because it is both financially more profitable for the private land owner and economically, environmentally and socially more beneficial to the community and society as a whole.

The widespread production of cash crops can result in the decline of forests, peatlands, rice fields and local community land. Such unwanted land-use and land-cover (LULC) change can lead to decreased carbon stocks, diminished biodiversity, displaced communities and reduced local food production. In this study, we analysed to what extent four main commodities, namely, palm oil, pulpwood, rice and rubber, can be produced in North and East Kalimantan in Indonesia without such unwanted LULC change. We investigated the technical potential of four measures to mitigate unwanted LULC change between 2008 and 2020 under low, medium and high scenarios, referring to the intensities of the mitigation measures compared with those implemented in 2008. These measures are related to land sparing through (i) the improvements of yields, (ii) chain efficiencies, (iii) chain integration and (iv) the steering of any expansion of these commodities to suitable and available underutilised (potentially degraded) lands. Our analyses resulted in a land-sparing potential of 0.4–1.2 Mha (i.e. 24–62% of the total land demand of the commodities) between 2008 and 2020, depending on the land-use projection of the four commodities and the scenario for implementing the mitigation measures. Additional expansion on underutilised land is the most important mitigation measure (45–62% of the total potential), followed by yield improvements as the second most important mitigation measure (32–46% of the total potential). Our study shows that reconciling the production of palm oil, pulpwood, rice and rubber with the maintenance of existing agricultural lands, forests and peatlands is technically possible only (i) under a scenario of limited agricultural expansion, (ii) if responsible land zoning is applied and enforced and (iii) if the yields and chain efficiencies are strongly improved.

Smallholder farmers might adopt different farming practices to cope with multiple stressors depending on their livelihood assets, and with varying environmental and economic outcomes. Ongoing global change is triggering stronger and different stressors that threaten conventional farming practices; however, this could be resolved if livelihood assets that drive decision making are actionable and thus can be modified. This study assessed the influence of farmers' livelihood assets, risk perception, and shocks on the choice of non-conventional farming practices for smallholder coffee farmers in San Martín, Peru. Using household survey data, we collected data on 162 coffee plantations along an elevation gradient. We operationalized the sustainable livelihoods framework for the adoption of shade and input coffee farming strategies and explored farmers’ motives to change them. Despite associated high risks with pest and disease pressure, coffee price volatility and climate change, these risks did not explain the current shade and input farming strategies. While in the past five years, farmers adapted shade and input management in response to pest and disease and climate change pressures, these occurred in diverging directions: we found higher human and social assets associated with higher shade levels, and a trend for higher physical and financial assets associated with higher input use. These findings illustrate that two main factors affect decisions on farming practices related to shade and input management and they relate to different livelihood capitals. This suggests a potential for conflicting decision-making, push-and-pulling decisions in different directions. Further the disconnect between livelihood assets and perceptions suggests that perception of risk and shocks might not be sufficient to motivate decision making under changing conditions. Such insights in decision-making typologies and drivers can inform the development of farming practices that enhance resilience and sustainability of smallholder coffee production in Peru and elsewhere in the tropics.

SummaryInfrastructures, such as roads, mines, and hydroelectric dams, are proliferating explosively. Often, this has serious direct and indirect environmental impacts. We highlight nine issues that should be considered by project proponents to better evaluate and limit the environmental risks of such developments.

The use of biomass as feedstock for energy is often associated with increased claims on land, competition with food production and impacts on other ecosystem services. Studies on sustainability aspects of bioenergy production often indicate biodiversity as a key concern. This article presents a first comprehensive review of published impacts of bioenergy crop production on biodiversity, evaluates the drivers and pressures of biodiversity change and summarizes current trends and impacts. The review provides insight into the types of biodiversity indicators applied under a range of conditions and the mitigating measures proposed to minimize negative impacts or realize biodiversity benefits. The 53 selected publications give diverse results that are explained by the various spatial scales, production systems and regions, time horizons, methodologies and biodiversity indicators used. Reported impacts depend on initial land use and are mostly negative, especially in tropical regions. The impacts of second generation bioenergy crops tend to be less negative than first generation ones, and are in some cases positive (at the field level), in particular in temperate regions. Land-use change appears as the key driver of biodiversity change, whereas the associated habitat loss, alterations in species richness and abundance are the main impacts addressed. Such changes are often paired with the (initiation of a) process of biological homogenization. The article confirms that concerns about the expansion of bioenergy crop production not only relate to the direct effects on biodiversity by replacing natural vegetation, but increasingly to indirect effects as well. These effects have, however, shown to be difficult to quantify. At the same time, the land sparing vs. land sharing debate receives growing attention, whereas little evidence exists in bioenergy literature on the impacts of large-scale application of these strategies on (agro)biodiversity. Following the findings of the review, the article finally provides recommendations for future research.

Forest degradation is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. In the Brazilian Amazon it is responsible for 20 per cent of total emissions (Asner et al. 2005). In Indonesia, the forest stock is decreasing by a rate of six per cent a year, only one-third of which is due to deforestation (Marklund and Schoene 2006). In Africa, the annual rate of degradation is almost 50 per cent of the deforestation rate (Lambin et al. 2003). In 2007, the Conference of the Parties (COP 13) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) acknowledged the importance of degradation and included it in the proposed mechanism for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). Addressing degradation has other important benefits, since it reduces the forest’s capacity to adapt to climate change and their ability to provide ecosystem and livelihood services.

Nicaragua és un país on la generació d'electricitat a partir de biomassa és una alternativa interessant per a reduir el consum de combustibles derivats del petroli. En els últims anys, entre un 70 i 81% de l'electricitat s'ha generat a partir de derivats de petroli (Fuel Oil o Gasoli). Amb la pujada dels preus del petroli el país ha de dedicar gran part dels seus recursos econòmics per a la importació d'aquests combustibles. Per a trobar una sortida a l'enorme dependència energètica, cal investigar una font d'energia que sigui renovable i que tingui efectes positius des del punt de vista econòmic, social i ambiental. La utilització dels residus agrícoles, forestals i la biomassa que es pot obtenir de plantacions forestals energètiques és una alternativa interessant. No obstant això, la planificació de localitzacions i les grandàries òptimes de les plantes generadores requereixen un procés complex comparat amb generadores que utilitzen combustibles fòssils. Per tant l'objectiu d'aquest estudi és desenvolupar un model espacial per a estimar la disponibilitat potencial de biomassa a Nicaragua.La metodologia ha consistit de dues fases, primer a una escala nacional s'ha fet una zonificació agroecológica i s'han seleccionat ubicacions favorables per a les plantes generadores. En la segona fase, les àrees seleccionades són objecte d'un estudi més detallat i mitjançant un procés d'optimització entre la demanda i el subministrament de biomassa es determina la grandària de les plantes. Addicionalment es prenen en compte aspectes ecològics i socioeconòmics.En ambdues fases, el procés parteix de la recopilació de dades per a conformar una base de dades cartogràfica desenvolupada en un SIG. S'efectua una zonificació agroecológica i s'estimen els rendiments potencials amb el mètode ZAE (Kassam, 1977), posteriorment es calculen els rendiments limitats per aigua a través del mètode CROPWAT i els resultats són confrontats amb dades de terreny i dades d'experts per a estimar el rendiment agronómicamente assolible. L'optimització econòmica i energètica es fa sobre la base del balanç d'oferta i demanda i els costos de producció i transport de la biomassa.Els resultats obtinguts ens indiquen que a Nicaragua hi ha suficient biomassa per a ser utilitzada amb fins energètics. D'acord a la zonificació agroecológica, el 47% del territori té un potencial forestal, i el model espacial desenvolupat estima en 62 milions de Mg de biomassa en aquesta àrea. A això li podem agregar 644 mil Mg de residus amb valor energètic que prové de cultius agrícoles. Si s'utilitzéssin solament els residus agrícoles, es generarien 64 MW a l'any. Les zones amb major potencial per a produir biomassa amb finalitats energètiques són la part nord oriental del país (entri Bilwi i el triangle miner), el centre (entri Waslala i Siuna) i la regió centre oriental (Muelle de los Bueyes). Per la seva ubicació i condicions contrastants es van seleccionar tres llocs per a realitzar els estudis de cas: Wasakin, Sébaco i Tipitapa.L'anàlisi detallada dels llocs seleccionats ens indica que a Tipitapa hi ha potencial per a generar electricitat en una planta de 37 MW, considerant la biomassa disponible en un radi de 25 km d'acord a l'optimització econòmica i energètica. L'altre lloc, Sébaco, on es concentren gran quantitat de residus com pellofa d'arròs i clofolla de cafè té un potencial de 35 MW. Finalment, Wasakin, considerant només l'àrea concesionada per a una empresa forestal i utilitzant únicament els residus forestals generats es va estimar un potencial de 1.37 MW que provenen de les activitats de tallada i processament de la fusta en una àrea de 9 mil ha. Malgrat això, hi ha limitacions de tipus tècnic i econòmic per a construir-hi una central de producció de biomassa.La combinació del mètode ZAE i el model CROPWAT, aplicats per mitjà d'un SIG proporciona resultats molt aproximats al terreny i permeten modelizar diferents escenaris per al suport en la presa de decisions., Nicaragua es un país en donde la generación de electricidad a partir de biomasa ha probado ser una alternativa interesante para reducir el consumo de combustibles derivados del petróleo. Pero en los últimos años, entre un 70 a 81% de la electricidad se ha venido generando con derivados de petróleo (Fuel Oil o Gasoil). Con la subida de los precios del petróleo el país tiene que dedicar gran parte de sus recursos económicos para la importación de estos combustibles. Para encontrar una salida a la enorme dependencia energética, es necesario investigar una fuente de energía que sea renovable y que tenga efectos positivos desde el punto de vista económico, social y ambiental. La utilización de los residuos agrícolas, forestales y la biomasa que se puede obtener de plantaciones forestales energéticas es una alternativa interesante. La planificación de localizaciones y los tamaños óptimos de las plantas generadoras requieren un proceso complejo comparado con generadoras que utilizan combustibles fósiles. Por lo tanto el objetivo de este estudio es desarrollar un modelo espacial para estimar la disponibilidad potencial de biomasa en Nicaragua.La metodología ha consistido de dos fases. primero, a escala nacional se ha realizado una zonificación agroecológica y se han seleccionado ubicaciones favorables para las plantas generadoras. En la segunda fase, las áreas seleccionadas han sido objeto de un estudio más detallado y mediante un proceso de optimización entre la demanda y el suministro de biomasa se ha determinado el tamaño de las plantas. Adicionalmente se han tomado en cuenta aspectos ecológicos y socioeconómicos.En ambas fases, el proceso parte de la recopilación de datos para conformar una base de datos cartográfica desarrollada en un SIG, se efectúa una zonificación agroecológica y se estiman los rendimientos potenciales con el método ZAE (Kassam, 1977). Posteriormente se calculan los rendimientos limitados por agua a través del método CROPWAT y los resultados son confrontados con datos de terreno y datos de expertos para estimar el rendimiento agronómicamente alcanzable. La optimización económica y energética se hace en base al balance de oferta y demanda y los costos de producción y transporte de la biomasa.Los resultados obtenidos nos indican que en Nicaragua hay suficiente biomasa para ser utilizada con fines energéticos. De acuerdo a la zonificación agroecológica, el 47% del territorio tiene un potencial forestal y el modelo espacial desarrollado estima en 62 millones de Mg de biomasa en esta área. A esto le podemos agregar 644 mil Mg de residuos con valor energético que proviene de cultivos agrícolas. Si se utilizaran solamente los residuos agrícolas, se generarían 64 MW al año. Las zonas con mayor potencial para producir biomasa con fines energéticos son la parte norte oriental del país (entre Bilwi y el triángulo minero), el centro (entre Waslala y Siuna) y la región centro oriental (Muelle de los Bueyes). Por su ubicación, y condiciones contrastantes se han seleccionado tres sitios para realizar los estudios de caso: Wasakin, Sébaco y Tipitapa.El análisis detallado de los sitios seleccionados nos indica que en Tipitapa hay potencial para generar electricidad en una planta de 37 MW, tomando en cuenta la biomasa disponible en un radio de 25 km de acuerdo a la optimización económica y energética. El otro sitio, Sébaco, donde se concentran gran cantidad de residuos como cascarilla de arroz y cascabillo de café tiene un potencial de 35 MW. Por último, Wasakin, considerando solamente el área concesionada para una empresa forestal y utilizando únicamente los residuos forestales generados se ha estimado un potencial de 1.37 MW que provienen de las actividades de corte y procesamiento de la madera en una área de 9 mil ha. Sin embargo, hay limitaciones técnicas y económicas para poder construir en este sitio una planta de generación a partir de biomasa.La combinación del método ZAE y el modelo CROPWAT, aplicado por medio de un SIG brinda resultados muy aproximados al terreno y permiten modelizar distintos escenarios para el apoyo en la toma de decisiones., Nicaragua is a country where the electricity generation from biomass has proven to be an interesting alternative to reduce the consumption of derived fuels of the petroleum. Nevertheless, in the last years, between a 70 to 81% of the electricity came from petroleum products (Fuel Oil or Gasoil). With increasing fuel prices the country has to dedicate great part of its economic resources for the import of these fuels. In order to look for a solution from this enormous energy dependence, it is necessary to find another energy source that can be renewable and with positive effects from the economic, social and environmental points of view. The use of the agricultural, forest residues and the biomass that can be obtained of forest energy plantations is an interesting alternative. However, the planning of localizations and the good sizes of the generating plants require a complex process compared with those using fossil fuels. Therefore the objective of this study is to develop a spacial model to estimate the potential biomass production for energy in Nicaragua.The methodology consisted of two phases. First, at a national scale an agroecological zonning was made, and favorable locations were selected for the generating plants. In the second phase, the selected areas were object of a detailed study and by means of a process of optimization between the demand and the supply of biomass the size of the plants was determined. Additionally, the ecological and socioeconomic aspects were taken into account.In both phases, the process takes input data to conform a cartographic database developed in a SIG. An agro ecologic zoning is made and the potential yields with the method AEZ (Kassam, 1977) are obtained. Later on the water-limited yields are calculated through the CROPWAT method and the results are confronted with land data and experts' data to estimate the attainable agronomical.yield. The economic and energetic optimization is made based on the balance between offer and demand and the production costs and transport of the biomass.The obtained results indicate us that in Nicaragua there is enough biomass to be used for energetic purposes. According to the agro ecologic zoning, 47% of the territory has a forest potential and the model developed assessed 62 millions of Mg of biomass in this area. Moreover we can add it 644 thousand Mg of residues with energy value that comes from agricultural cultivations. If only the agricultural residues were used, 64 MW a year would be generated. The areas with more potential to produce biomass with energetic value are the oriental north part of the country (between Bilwi and the mining triangle), the center (between Waslala y Siuna) and the eastern center region (Muelle de los Bueyes). According to their location and contrasting conditions three places were selected to carry out the case studies: Wasakin, Sébaco and Tipitapa.The detailed analysis of the selected places indicates that in Tipitapa there is potential to generate electricity in a power plant of 37 MW, taking into account the available biomass in a radius of 25 km according to the economic and energetic optimization. The second place, Sébaco, where great quantity of residues like husk of rice and coffee parchment are produced, has a potential of 35 MW. Finally, Wasakin, considering only the area under concession for a forest company and using the generated forest residues had only a potential of 1.37 MW that came from the activities and processing of the wood in an area of 9000 ha. Nevertheless, there are technical and economic limitations for building and implementing an energy central in this site.The combination of the AEZ method and the CROPWAT frame, applied by means of a GIS offers very approximate results to the field data and allow modeling of different scenarios for decision support.