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Molecular technologies have revolutionized the field of wildlife disease ecology, allowing the detection of outbreaks, novel pathogens, and invasive strains. In particular, metabarcoding approaches, defined here as tools used to amplify and sequence universal barcodes from a single sample (e.g., 16S rRNA for bacteria, ITS for fungi, 18S rRNA for eukaryotes), are expanding our traditional view of host–pathogen dynamics by integrating microbial interactions that modulate disease outcome. Here, I provide an analysis from the perspective of the field of amphibian disease ecology, where the emergence of multi-host pathogens has caused global declines and species extinctions. I reanalyzed an experimental mesocosm dataset to infer the functional profiles of the skin microbiomes of coqui frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui), an amphibian species that is consistently found infected with the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and has high turnover of skin bacteria driven by seasonal shifts. I found that the metabolic activities of microbiomes operate at different capacities depending on the season. Global enrichment of predicted functions was more prominent during the warm-wet season, indicating that microbiomes during the cool-dry season were either depauperate, resistant to new bacterial colonization, or that their functional space was more saturated. These findings suggest important avenues to investigate how microbes regulate population growth and contribute to host physiological processes. Overall, this study highlights the current challenges and future opportunities in the application of metabarcoding to investigate the causes and consequences of disease in wild systems.

Symbiotic interactions can determine the evolutionary trajectories of host species, influencing genetic variation through selection and changes in demography. In the context of strong selective pressures such as those imposed by infectious diseases, symbionts providing defences could contribute to increase host fitness upon pathogen emergence. Here, we generated genome-wide data of an amphibian species to find evidence of evolutionary pressures driven by two skin symbionts: a batrachochytrid fungal pathogen and an antifungal bacterium. Using demographic modelling, we found evidence of decreased effective population size, probably due to pathogen infections. Additionally, we investigated host genetic associations with infection status, antifungal bacterium abundance and overall microbiome diversity using structural equation models. We uncovered relatively lower nucleotide diversity in infected frogs and potential heterozygote advantage to recruit the candidate beneficial symbiont and fight infections. Our models indicate that environmental conditions have indirect effects on symbiont abundance through both host body traits and microbiome diversity. Likewise, we uncovered a potential offsetting effect among host heterozygosity-fitness correlations, plausibly pointing to different ecological and evolutionary processes among the three species due to dynamic interactions. Our findings revealed that evolutionary pressures not only arise from the pathogen but also from the candidate beneficial symbiont, and both interactions shape the genetics of the host. Our results advance knowledge about multipartite symbiotic relationships and provide a framework to model ecological and evolutionary dynamics in wild populations. Finally, our study approach can be applied to inform conservation actions such as bioaugmentation strategies for other imperilled amphibians affected by infectious diseases.

As globalization lowers geographic barriers to movement, coinfection with novel and enzootic pathogens is increasingly likely. Novel and enzootic pathogens can interact synergistically or antagonistically, leading to increased or decreased disease severity. Here we examine host immune responses to coinfection with two closely related fungal pathogens: Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). Both pathogens have had detrimental effects on amphibian populations, with Bd now largely enzootic, while Bsal is currently spreading and causing epizootics. Recent experimental work revealed that newts coinfected with Bd and Bsal had significantly higher mortality than those infected with either pathogen alone. Here we characterize host immunogenomic responses to chytrid coinfection relative to single infection. Across several classes of immune genes including pattern recognition receptors, cytokines, and MHC, coinfected host gene expression was weakly upregulated or comparable to that seen in single Bd infection, but significantly decreased when compared to Bsal infection. Combined with strong complement pathway downregulation and keratin upregulation, these results indicate that coinfection with Bd and Bsal compromises immune responses active against Bsal alone. As Bsal continues to invade naïve habitats where Bd is enzootic, coinfection will be increasingly common. If other Bd-susceptible species in the region have similar responses, interactions between the two pathogens could cause severe population and community-level declines.

While some pathogens are limited to single species, others can colonize many hosts, likely contributing to the emergence of novel disease outbreaks. Despite this biodiversity threat, traits associated with host niche expansions are not well understood in multihost pathogens. Here, we aimed to uncover functional machinery driving multihost invasion by focusing on Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a pathogen that infects the skin of hundreds of amphibians worldwide. We performed a meta-analysis of Bd gene expression using data from published infection experiments and newly generated profiles. We analysed Bd transcriptomic landscapes across the skin of 14 host species, reconstructed Bd isolates phylogenetic relationships, and inferred the origin and evolutionary history of differentially expressed genes under a phylogenetic framework comprising other 12 zoosporic fungi. Bd displayed plastic infection strategies when challenged by hosts with different disease susceptibility. Our analyses identified sets of differentially expressed genes under host environments with similar infection outcome. We stressed nutritional immunity and gene silencing as important processes required to overcome challenging skin environments in less susceptible hosts. Overall, Bd genes expressed during amphibian skin exploitation have arisen mainly via gene duplications with great family expansions, increasing the gene copy events previously described for this fungal species. Finally, we provide a comprehensive gene data set that can be used to further examine eco-evolutionary hypotheses for this host-pathogen system. Our study supports the idea that host environments exert contrasting selective pressures, such that gene expression plasticity could be one of the evolutionary keys leading to the success of multihost pathogens.

A persistent two-month long outbreak of Ranavirus in a natural community of amphibians contributed to a mass die-off of gopher frog tadpoles (Lithobates capito) and severe disease in striped newts (Notophthalmus perstriatus) in Florida. Ongoing mortality in L. capito and signs in N. perstriatus continued for five weeks after the first observation. Hemorrhagic disease and necrosis were diagnosed from pathological examination of L. capito tadpoles. We confirmed detection of a Frog Virus 3 (FV3)-like Ranavirus via quantitative PCR in all species. Our findings highlight the susceptibility of these species to Rv and the need for long-term disease surveillance during epizootics.

The human paraoxonases family (PONs) includes three calcium-dependent esterases: PON1, PON2, and PON3. The presence of PONs mRNA in human lungs is known, however, their enzymatic activity and subcellular localization have not been sufficiently explored.In this work, the presence of PONs in human lung tissues, at both mRNA and protein levels, was confirmed by Real-Time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. Moreover, the activities of PONs were determined in cytosol and microsomes of 30 subjects and in mitochondria of 8 representative lung tissues using selective and non-selective substrates. Besides, to exclude the possible contribution of other esterases on PON1 organophosphate activity, the effect of bis-p-nitrophenyl phosphate (BNPP) and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), esterase inhibitors, and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), a general paraoxonase inhibitor, was tested. Finally, the presence and activities of PONs in the A549 pulmonary cell line were also evaluated in order to be used as a model for studies on paraoxonases' metabolism.Our results demonstrated high interindividual variability in both PONs mRNA/protein levels and enzymatic activities and pointed out the presence of all PONs in human lungs and their subcellular distribution in the cytosol, microsomes, and mitochondria.These findings add further information to our knowledge of pulmonary metabolism and, given that PON1 can metabolize some drugs used for respiratory diseases, the presence of PON1 activity in the lung tissue should no longer be ignored in the development of treatment plans and the design of new drugs.

Study question Do stage and grade of breast cancer impact the number of retrieved mature oocytes during controlled ovarian stimulation for fertility preservation? Summary answer Stage and grade of breast cancer do not impact the number of retrieved mature oocytes. Higher grade breast cancer requires higher gonadotropin doses during stimulation. What is known already Cancer can impair ovarian response by unknown mechanisms. Some authors suggest that it could be detrimental on fertility because it elicits a catabolic state, increasing stress hormone levels. Some studies have also shown that ovarian response to controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) is, in some way, compromised in oncological patients. Little is known about the impact of different types of cancer on ovarian reserve, and specifically whether higher stage and grade could compromise egg retrieval during fertility preservation (FP) techniques. Study design, size, duration: Retrospective cohort study evaluating data of FP treatment cycles among women with breast cancer at the Oncofertility Unit of San Raffaele Hospital, Milan in the period from 2011 to 2019. Participants/materials, setting, methods Inclusion criteria were: breast cancer diagnosis; age 22–41; oocyte cryopreservation after stimulation with a random start GnRH-antagonist protocol. Patients receiving chemotherapy before FP were excluded. We compared outcomes between low-stage (stage I) and high-stage (stage II-III) patients and low-grade (G1-G2) and high-grade (G3) patients. Main study outcome was the total number of retrieved mature oocytes. Univariate analysis was performed by Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test and Fisher’s exact test. Multivariate analysis was performed by logistic regression. Main results and the role of chance 101 stimulation cycles were included. High-stage disease patients were significantly younger than low-stage. Median antral follicle count (AFC) was 12 in low-stage and 10 in high-stage (age-adjusted p = 0.92) and median anti-mullerian hormone (AMH) levels were 1.9 ug/L in low-stage and 1.8 ug/L in high-stage (age-adjusted p = 0.22). No significant difference in stimulation protocols and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) start and total dose could be detected between the 2 groups. Median number of vitrified oocytes was 7 in both groups (p = 0.75). No significant difference could be observed in median AFC (13 vs 10, p = 0.14) and AMH levels (2.1 vs 1.5, p = 0.88) between low-grade and high-grade disease patients. When adjusting for age, AFC was found to be significantly lower in high-grade disease patients (p = 0.03). Patients with high-grade tumors were stimulated with higher doses of FSH (age-adjusted p-value=0.03). Median number of vitrified oocytes was 6 in low-grade patients and 7 in high-grade (p = 0.35). In a multivariate model including age, cancer stage, cancer grade and molecular classification, the only significant factor found to be inversely associated with AFC was cancer grade (OR 3.6; 95% CI 0.7 – 6.5, p = 0.01), while only age was significantly associated with oocyte retrieval (OR 0.4; 95% CI 0.01 – 0.9, p = 0.04). Limitations, reasons for caution The main limitations of our study are its retrospective design and the small sample size. Wider implications of the findings: Fertility preservation counselling and ovarian stimulation protocols of breast cancer patients could be implemented with cancer grade. Trial registration number Not applicable

Invasive fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal) are causing mortality events and population declines in amphibians around the world. B. salamandrivorans has not been found in the Americas but is predicted to emerge there given the presence of competent hosts, high volume import pathways, and lack of effective biosecurity measures. Eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens) are the most abundant and widespread salamanders in United States with known susceptibility to both fungi. However, little is known about how their current Bd infections will interact with novel Bsal infections. Here, we ran a series of experiments in which we exposed newts to each fungal pathogen, combinations of both fungi, and three Bd isolates to: (1) determine if natural exposure to Bd provides protection against Bsal, (2) quantify the effect of co-infections on newt survival, and (3) examine if resistance responses are general to multiple lineages. We found that hosts exposed under simultaneous co-infections experienced 78% mortality over a period of 18 weeks, which was driven by the persistence of Bsal because newts cleared Bd infection within a month. In a subsequent experiment, resistant newts also resolved infections of three Bd genotypes, suggesting that the defense mechanism is effective across all lineages. However, re-exposing these individuals with a tenfold higher dose (106Bd zoospores) increased their susceptibility to Bsal, and 93% of them sustained Bsal infections. Our findings will improve the estimates of decline risk for a species that could serve as a potential superspreader of Bsal in North America.

Animal-associated microbiomes are integral to host health, yet key biotic and abiotic factors that shape host-associated microbial communities at the global scale remain poorly understood. We investigated global patterns in amphibian skin bacterial communities, incorporating samples from 2,349 individuals representing 205 amphibian species across a broad biogeographic range. We analysed how biotic and abiotic factors correlate with skin microbial communities using multiple statistical approaches. Global amphibian skin bacterial richness was consistently correlated with temperature-associated factors. We found more diverse skin microbiomes in environments with colder winters and less stable thermal conditions compared with environments with warm winters and less annual temperature variation. We used bioinformatically predicted bacterial growth rates, dormancy genes and antibiotic synthesis genes, as well as inferred bacterial thermal growth optima to propose mechanistic hypotheses that may explain the observed patterns. We conclude that temporal and spatial characteristics of the host’s macro-environment mediate microbial diversity. National Science Foundation/[DEB-1146284]/NSF/Estados Unidos National Science Foundation/[IOS-1121758]/NSF/Estados Unidos National Science Foundation/[DEB-1310036]/NSF/Estados Unidos John Templeton Foundation/[]/JTF/Estados Unidos Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft/[]/DFG/Alemania Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft/[VE247/9-1]/DFG/Alemania Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior/[]/CAPES/Brasil Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo/[#2013/50741-7]/FAPESP/Brasil Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico/[]/CNPq/Brasil Simons Foundation/[429440, WTW]//Estados Unidos Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst/[]/DAAD/Alemania Universidad de Costa Rica/[801-B2-029]/UCR/Costa Rica Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología y Telecomunicaciones/[849-PINN-2015]/MICITT/Costa Rica National Research Foundation of Korea/[2015R1D1A1A01057282]/NRF/Corea del Sur UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Básicas::Centro de Investigación en Biología Celular y Molecular (CIBCM) UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Básicas::Centro de Investigación en Estructuras Microscópicas (CIEMIC)

A persistent 2-month long outbreak of Ranavirus in a natural community of amphibians contributed to a mass die-off of gopher frog tadpoles (Lithobates capito) and severe disease in striped newts (Notophthalmus perstriatus) in Florida. Ongoing mortality in L. capito and disease signs in N. perstriatus continued for 5 weeks after the first observation. Hemorrhagic disease and necrosis were diagnosed from pathological examination of L. capito tadpoles. We confirmed detection of a frog virus 3 (FV3)-like Ranavirus via quantitative PCR in all species. Our findings highlight the susceptibility of these species to Rv and the need for long-term disease surveillance during epizootics.

BackgroundSince the COVID-19 vaccination campaign was launched all over Europe, there has been general agreement on how benefits of SARS-CoV2 vaccines outweigh the risks in patients with rare connective tissue diseases (rCTDs). Yet, there is still limited evidence regarding safety and efficacy of such vaccines in these patients, especially in the long-term. For this reason, in the framework of ERN-ReCONNET, an observational long-term study (VACCINATE) was designed in order to explore the long-term outcome of COVID-19 vaccination in rCTDs patients. The consent form was developed thanks to the involvement of the ERN ReCONNET ePAG Advocates (European Patients Advocacy Group).ObjectivesTo evaluate the safety profile of COVID-19 vaccination in rCTDs patients and the potential impact on disease activity. Primary endpoints were the prevalence of adverse events (AEs) and of disease exacerbations post-vaccination. Secondary endpoints were the proportion of serious adverse events (SAEs) and adverse events of special interest for COVID-19 (adapted from https://brightoncollaboration.us/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/SO2_D2.1.2_V1.2_COVID-19_AESI-update-23Dec2020-review_final.pdf)MethodsThe first ad-interim analysis of the VACCINATE study involved 9 ERN-ReCONNET Network centres. Patients over 18 years of age with a known rCTD and who received vaccine against COVID-19 were eligible for recruitment. Demographic data and diagnoses were collected at the time of enrolment, while the appearance of AEs and potential disease exacerbations were monitored after one week from each vaccination dose, and then after 4, 12 and 24 weeks from the second dose. A disease exacerbation was defined as at least one of the following: new manifestations attributable to disease activity, hospitalization, increase in PGA from previous evaluation, addition of corticosteroids or immunosuppressants.ResultsA cohort of 300 patients (261 females, mean age 52, range 18-85) was recruited. Systemic lupus erythematosus (44%) and systemic sclerosis (16%) were the most frequent diagnoses, followed by Sjogren’s syndrome (SS,12%), idiopathic inflammatory myositis (IMM,10%), undifferentiated connective tissue disease (UCTD,8%), mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD,4%), Ehlers-Danlos’s syndrome (EDS,4%), antiphospholipid syndrome (APS,2%). AEs appearing 7 days after the first and second doses were reported in 93 (31%) and 96 (32%) patients respectively, mainly represented by fatigue, injection site reaction, headache, fever and myalgia. Otitis, urticaria, Herpes Simplex-related rash, stomatitis, migraine with aura, vertigo, tinnitus and sleepiness were reported with very low frequency. Less than 2% of patients experienced AEs within 24 weeks from the second dose. No SAEs or AEs of special interest were observed in the study period. There were 25 disease exacerbations (8%), 7 of which severe. The highest number of exacerbations was observed after 4 weeks from the second dose (12 within week 4, 6 within week 12 and 7 within week 24). Disease exacerbation was most frequent in patients with EDS (33%) and MCTD (25%).ConclusionThis preliminary analysis shows that COVID-19 vaccination is safe in rCTDs patients. AEs appear most often early after vaccination and are usually mild. Disease exacerbations are not frequent, but can be potentially severe and tend to occur most frequently within the first month after vaccination. Exacerbations can also occur 3-6 months after vaccination, although a causal relationship with the vaccination remains to be established. Our present data underline the importance of long-term observational studies.Table 1.AEs and disease exacerbations per diseaseDiagnosisPatients enrolled (%) (n=300)EAs after 1st and 2nd dose (%)Exacerbations (%)APS25714EDS45033IIM10527MCTD44225SS12598SLE44698SSC16492UCTD850-AcknowledgementsVACCINATE is a study promoted by the European Reference Network on rare and complex connective tissue diseases, ERN ReCONNET. This publication was funded by the European Union’s Health Programme (2014-2020)Disclosure of InterestsNone declared

Understanding the responses of naive communities to the invasion of multihost pathogens requires accurate estimates of susceptibility across taxa. In the Americas, the likely emergence of a second amphibian pathogenic fungus (Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, Bsal) calls for new ways of prioritizing disease mitigation among species due to the high diversity of naive hosts with prior B. dendrobatidis (Bd) infections. Here, we applied the concept of pathogenic potential to quantify the virulence of chytrid fungi on naive amphibians and evaluate species for conservation efforts in the event of an outbreak. The benefit of this measure is that it combines and summarizes the variation in disease effects into a single numerical index, allowing for comparisons across species, populations or groups of individuals that may inherently exhibit differences in susceptibility. As a proof of concept, we obtained standardized responses of disease severity by performing experimental infections with Bsal on five plethodontid salamanders from southeastern United States. Four out of five species carried natural infections of Bd at the start of the experiments. We showed that Bsal exhibited its highest value of pathogenic potential in a species that is already declining (Desmognathus auriculatus). We find that this index provides additional information beyond the standard measures of disease prevalence, intensity, and mortality, because it leveraged these disease parameters within each categorical group. Scientists and practitioners could use this measure to justify research, funding, trade, or conservation measures.

Sexual selection can drive variation in conspicuous traits, providing signals to females about overall male health including their ability to fight parasites. Trait–parasite relationships have been extensively studied in fish and birds, but few records exist for amphibians. Here, we focused on a direct‐developing frog (Eleutherodactylus cooki) that exhibits variation in the extent of yellow coloration on the venter of males, a sexually selected trait that is correlated with reproductive success and parental care. We quantified the relationship between the color trait and the prevalence of two parasites, a tick (Carios undescribed sp.) and a fungal pathogen (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), across hosts, populations, and environmental contexts. We found that tick larvae were carried more frequently by males than females. Among males, ticks parasitized more those with a greater extent of yellow coloration. We did not detect any patterns associated with sex, habitat use, or male coloration with fungal infections. Co‐infections were low (5%) and predominantly occurred in males (71%). Our findings highlight the reproductive cost of tick parasitism for males and suggest that females may assess both the quality of parental care and overall health in areas of high tick exposure. Thus, yellow coloration in males of this nocturnal amphibian may have evolved as an honest signal of health and quality of parental care.

Chytridiomycosis is an emerging infectious disease of amphibians caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which has led to devastating declines in amphibian populations worldwide. Current theory predicts that Bd infections are maintained through both reproduction on the host's skin and reinfection from sources outside of the host. To investigate the importance of external reinfection on pathogen burden, we infected captive-bred individuals of the highly susceptible Panamanian Golden Frog, Atelopus glyphus, and wild-caught glass frogs, Espadarana prosoblepon, with Bd. We housed the animals in one of three treatments: individually, in heterospecific pairs, and in conspecific pairs. For 8 weeks, we measured the Bd load and shedding rate of all frogs. We found that Atelopus had high rates of increase in both Bd load and shedding rate, but pathogen growth rates did not differ among treatments. The infection intensity of Espadarana co-housed with Atelopus was indistinguishable from those housed singly and those in conspecific pairs, despite being exposed to a large external source of Bd zoospores. Our results indicate that Bd load in both species is driven by pathogen replication within an individual, with reinfection from outside the host contributing little to the amplification of host fungal load.

Three sites of groundwater captation on Mt. Etna volcano (namely Currone, Ilice and Pavone) were sampled systematically for six years (from 2000 to 2006) for the determination of the major ionic composition of water. The monitored sites were chosen among those most representative of the geochemical characteristics of the groundwater systems of the volcano. The period studied was characterized by several strong eruptions of Mt. Etna, both at its summit craters and along its flanks. The overall composition of the waters sampled at Currone and Ilice falls in the group of bicarbonate-alkaline-earth compositions, whereas those from Pavone show a bicarbonate-alkaline composition. In all sites, however, some samples show input of chlorine-sulfate alkaline waters, likely due to interaction between fresh groundwater and either acidic waters from SO2-polluted rainwater, (more evident at Pavone) or geothermal brines (more evident at Currone). Significant temporal variations affected, in a more or less marked way, all of the parameters measured at the three sites. Basic statistical correlations among the parameters at each site allowed to discover a general coherent temporal behavior of all major ions dissolved in Mt. Etna's ground waters. Factor Analysis allowed showing up to three main groups of parameters with similar temporal behavior, depending on the site. A first group was explained by interaction between volcanic ground waters and geothermal fluids; a second group was related with leaching of the host volcanic rocks by CO2-rich volcanic water; a third group was explained as due to input of plume-SO2-derived sulfate through water recharge. Using normal probability plots for each parameter at the three sites it was possible to reveal different geochemical populations explained as background, anomalous values and, possibly, outliers. Plotting the temporal patterns of all the monitored parameters versus the concurrent eruptive episodes at Mt. Etna, we discovered significant correlations that, although with different intensity and rate depending on the parameter and on the site, highlighted several geochemical processes induced by interaction between cold groundwater and magmatic/hydrothermal fluids, mostly following changes in the ground permeability of the volcanic pile. These processes seemed to be enhanced during periods of shallow magma accumulation inside of the volcano that preceded summit or flank eruptions occurred at Mt. Etna during the monitored period.

This essay explores the potential value of short-term study abroad experiences within the unique framework of a new global service-learning program at Providence College which connects international with local engagement as a way to “do more with less.” Authors first introduce a typology for global service-learning, illustrating how this model fits within current approaches to international service-learning. They then describe a case study, Voices Across Borders, the global service-learning program which provides opportunities for students to engage with rural Nicaraguan and urban Providence youth through projects that harness the power of storytelling to make connections across borders. Based on the lessons from this effort, the essay offers a set of civic practices that can support the longer-term impact of short-term global service-learning, including i) fostering storytelling across borders; ii) cultivating students as partners; iii) developing reciprocal community partnerships; and iv)creating public work, visual, auditory or performing public artifacts. After describing the challenges for short-term international engagement, the authors conclude that global service-learning initiatives might more appropriately be focused on collaborative learning, rather than service, as a way of thinking more comprehensively about the entire global “ecology of education” which links learning at the international and local levels.

1. Conservation managers rely on accurate estimates of disease parameters, such as pathogen prevalence and infection intensity, to assess disease status of a host population. However, these disease metrics may be biased if low-level infection intensities are missed by sampling methods or laboratory diagnostic tests. These false negatives underestimate pathogen prevalence and overestimate mean infection intensity of infected individuals. 2. Our objectives were two-fold. First, we quantified false negative error rates of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on non-invasive skin swabs collected from an amphibian community in El Cope, Panama. We swabbed amphibians twice in sequence, and we used a recently developed hierarchical Bayesian estimator to assess disease status of the population. Second, we developed a novel hierarchical Bayesian model to simultaneously account for imperfect pathogen detection from field sampling and laboratory diagnostic testing. We evaluated the performance of the model using simulations and varying sampling design to quantify the magnitude of bias in estimates of pathogen prevalence and infection intensity. 3. We show that Bd detection probability from skin swabs was related to host infection intensity, where Bd infections < 10 zoospores have < 95% probability of being detected. If imperfect Bd detection was not considered, then Bd prevalence was underestimated by as much as 16%. In the Bd-amphibian system, this indicates a need to correct for imperfect pathogen detection caused by skin swabs in persisting host communities with low-level infections. More generally, our results have implications for study designs in other disease systems, particularly those with similar objectives, biology, and sampling decisions. 4. Uncertainty in pathogen detection is an inherent property of most sampling protocols and diagnostic tests, where the magnitude of bias depends on the study system, type of infection, and false negative error rates. Given that it may be difficult to know this information in advance, we advocate that the most cautious approach is to assume all errors are possible and to accommodate them by adjusting sampling designs. The modeling framework presented here improves the accuracy in estimating pathogen prevalence and infection intensity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Pathogen-mediated changes in host behaviour can result from hosts altering their habitat preferences. Although infection risk with pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in amphibians is ...

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans are important amphibian pathogens responsible for morbidity and mortality in free-ranging and captive frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. While B. dendrobatidis has a widespread global distribution, B. salamandrivorans has only been detected in amphibians in Asia and Europe. Although molecular detection methods for these fungi are well-characterized, differentiation of the morphologically similar organisms in the tissues of affected amphibians is incredibly difficult. Moreover, an accurate tool to identify and differentiate Batrachochytrium in affected amphibian tissues is essential for a specific diagnosis of the causative agent in chytridiomycosis cases. To address this need, an automated dual-plex chromogenic RNAScope® in situ hybridization (ISH) assay was developed and characterized for simultaneous detection and differentiation of B. dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans. The assay, utilizing double Z target probe pairs designed to hybridize to 28S rRNA sequences, was specific for the identification of both organisms in culture and in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded amphibian tissues. The assay successfully identified organisms in tissue samples from five salamander and one frog species preserved in formalin for up to 364 days and was sensitive for the detection of Batrachochytrium in animals with qPCR loads as low as 1.1 × 102 zoospores/microliter. ISH staining of B. salamandrivorans also highlighted the infection of dermal cutaneous glands, a feature not observed in amphibian B. dendrobatidis cases and which may play an important role in B. salamandrivorans pathogenesis in salamanders. The developed ISH assay will benefit both amphibian chytridiomycosis surveillance projects and pathogenesis studies by providing a reliable tool for Batrachochytrium differentiation in tissues.

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans are important amphibian pathogens responsible for morbidity and mortality in free-ranging and captive frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. While B. dendrobatidis has a widespread global distribution, B. salamandrivorans has only been detected in amphibians in Asia and Europe. Although molecular detection methods for these fungi are well-characterized, differentiation of the morphologically similar organisms in the tissues of affected amphibians is incredibly difficult. Moreover, an accurate tool to identify and differentiate Batrachochytrium in affected amphibian tissues is essential for a specific diagnosis of the causative agent in chytridiomycosis cases. To address this need, an automated dual-plex chromogenic RNAScope® in situ hybridization (ISH) assay was developed and characterized for simultaneous detection and differentiation of B. dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans. The assay, utilizing double Z target probe pairs designed to hybridize to 28S rRNA sequences, was specific for the identification of both organisms in culture and in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded amphibian tissues. The assay successfully identified organisms in tissue samples from five salamander and one frog species preserved in formalin for up to 364 days and was sensitive for the detection of Batrachochytrium in animals with qPCR loads as low as 1.1 × 102 zoospores/microliter. ISH staining of B. salamandrivorans also highlighted the infection of dermal cutaneous glands, a feature not observed in amphibian B. dendrobatidis cases and which may play an important role in B. salamandrivorans pathogenesis in salamanders. The developed ISH assay will benefit both amphibian chytridiomycosis surveillance projects and pathogenesis studies by providing a reliable tool for Batrachochytrium differentiation in tissues.

Early weaning of ewe lambs strongly stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is associated with suppressed growth rate despite the increased food intake. At the same time, plasma leptin concentration increases only slightly or undetectably. To better understand this atypical interdependence among somatic stress, leptin, and lamb growth rate, we analyzed impact of leptin and/or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) on growth hormone (GH) secretion as well as the effect of ACTH on mRNA expression of two splice variants of leptin receptor (LEPRa, LEPRb) in pituitary cells isolated from early weaned ewe lambs. The GH secretion under the influence of leptin and/or ACTH depended on the timing of exposure and hormone concentration. After 6 - 30 h, GH secretion increased under 10

As service-learning has moved from the margins to the mainstream of education, programs once led by students are now coordinated by administrators, faculty, or leadership development staff. This chapter calls for the return of student-led service.

"The first record about the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Mexican plethodontid salamanders dates back to the 1970s. However, little is known of the patterns of infection in wild populations and the effects of changes in temperature on the degree of infection. This work quantified Bd infection in a population of Pseudoeurycea leprosa in La Malinche National Park, Puebla, Mexico from June 2011 to September 2012. A total of 160 adult salamanders were experimentally exposed to temperatures of 10, 15, 20, 23, 25, or 28 ◦C for 10 weeks. The results of this study revealed that: (1) the population of P. leprosa in La Malinche National Park is infected with Bd throughout the year at a low prevalence of between 0 and 17%; (2) 20.6% of the salamanders that were Bd negative at the time of collection expressed chytridiomycosis after exposure to the experimental temperature treatments; (3) temperature was the cause of death in each treatment, with temperatures of 25 ◦C and 28 ◦C affecting the survival of P. leprosa; (4) the infection load in certain P. leprosa individuals exhibited cycles of increasing and decreasing zoospore genomic equivalents over time. All Rights Reserved © 2016 Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Biología. This is an open access item distributed under the Creative Commons CC License BY-NC-ND 4.0."

Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-26T16:24:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2016-02-01 National Science Foundation Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Cornell University Fundacao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Habitat disturbances and the emergence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) are linked to accelerated amphibian declines. Deforestation can directly alter amphibian community structure through abiotic and biotic mechanisms including shifts in local microclimates and species interactions. Changes in amphibian community attributes, in turn, potentially impact Bd transmission dynamics, and thus also have an indirect role in biodiversity persistence. Here, we tested whether deforestation influences Bd infections through shifts in amphibian community structure, including species richness, community composition, total host density, and host biomass. We surveyed 22 temperate and tropical amphibian communities across gradients of deforestation in the U.S. and Brazil, and we experimentally exposed a representative subsample of each amphibian community to standardized Bd zoospore loads in mesocosms under controlled microclimate. We found that denser temperate amphibian communities commonly found at pristine sites showed higher Bd loads when microclimates were held constant. In contrast, tropical amphibian communities found at pristine forest sites carried lower Bd infection loads in the absence of variable microclimates, likely due to their host species composition. Previous host exposure to the pathogen in tropical communities also played an important role in determining infection loads; we identified a negative association between Bd infection loads observed in the wild and in the laboratory. Our results highlight that deforestation can have cascading biotic effects on disease risk, and that quantifying the net contribution of host community attributes to Bd infections will help us identify specific drivers of disease and inform conservation strategies. Cornell Univ, Dept Ecol & Evolutionary Biol, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA Univ Estadual Paulista, Dept Zool, BR-13506 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil Texas State Univ, Dept Biol, San Marcos, TX 78666 USA Univ Estadual Campinas, Dept Biol Anim, BR-13083 Campinas, SP, Brazil Univ Estadual Paulista, Dept Zool, BR-13506 Rio Claro, SP, Brazil National Science Foundation: DEB-1209382 National Science Foundation: DEB-0542848 CAPES: 2157-08 Fundacao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo: FAPESP 2011/51694-7 Fundacao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo: 2008/50928-1 CNPq: 312895/2014-3

Background:Air pollution is believed to cause oxidative stress and systemic inflammation, that could trigger autoimmunity in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Several epidemiological studies investigated the possible role of air pollution in the outbreak of RA with controversial results. As far as we know, studies on the effects on disease activity of short-term exposure have not been published.Objectives:To evaluate the impact of short-term exposure to air pollutants (daily mean PM10, PM2.5, NO2and O3) on disease activity in patients with RA.Methods:Consecutive patients with RA (ACR/EULAR Criteria 2010) resident in Lombardy (Italy) were enrolled. In each patient Disease Activity Score on 28 joints (DAS28), Simple Disease Activity Index (SDAI) were assessed. Daily PM10, PM2.5, NO2and O3concentrations, estimated by Regional Environmental Protection Agency at municipality resolution, were used to assign short-term exposure from day of visit back to 14 days. Multivariable linear regression models were performed to identify the day of the pollutants independently associated with disease activity indices, adjusting for the variables significant at the univariate analysis. β coefficients were reported for 1 μg/m3increments of pollutants’ concentrations.Results:422 RA patients were enrolled in the study between January and June 2018: 81.5% females, mean age 58.2±13.3 years, mean disease duration 16.1±11.5 years, 27.3% current smokers, 59.5% RF positivity, 54.5% ACPA positivity. Sparse punctual statistically significant negative associations emerged at the multivariate analysis between PM10, PM2.5, NO2and the outcomes, although with very low estimates, whereas positive associations resulted for O3.Afterwards patients were stratified in 3 subgroups according to their ongoing treatment (no therapy, n=25, conventional synthetic Disease Modifying anti-Rheumatic Drugs -DMARDs-, n=108 and biological or targeted synthetic DMARDs, n=289). A statistical significance was found by analysing the influence of therapy on the interaction between PM2.5and DAS28 (Figure below): a positive trend between PM2.5and DAS28 appeared in the first two groups (no therapy, 0.013±0.007, p=0.06 and csDMARDs, 0.006±0.004, p=0.17), whereas a statistically significant inverse association was seen in the b/tsDMARDs group (-0.005±0.002, p=0.01). Therapy interaction was particularly evident in several days before the visit also for O3.Conclusion:The changes of the outcome measures related to the increase of the pollutants’ levels did not reach the minimal clinically important difference, therefore air pollution seems barely relevant on disease activity once the loss of tolerance is established in RA. O3and PM/NO2always exhibit an opposite performance having inversely proportional atmospheric concentrations, whereas the biological role of this substance is still matter of debate and will need further understanding. Therapy seems to be able to interact with the relation between air pollutants and the parameters considered.Disclosure of Interests:Francesca Ingegnoli: None declared, Tania Ubiali: None declared, Tommaso Schioppo: None declared, Valentina Longo: None declared, Simona Iodice: None declared, Ennio Giulio Favalli Consultant of: Consultant and/or speaker for BMS, Eli-Lilly, MSD, UCB, Pfizer, Sanofi-Genzyme, Novartis, and Abbvie, Speakers bureau: Consultant and/or speaker for BMS, Eli-Lilly, MSD, UCB, Pfizer, Sanofi-Genzyme, Novartis, and Abbvie, Orazio De Lucia: None declared, Antonella Murgo: None declared, Valentina Bollati: None declared, Roberto Caporali Consultant of: AbbVie; Gilead Sciences, Inc.; Lilly; Merck Sharp & Dohme; Celgene; Bristol-Myers Squibb; Pfizer; UCB, Speakers bureau: Abbvie; Bristol-Myers Squibb; Celgene; Lilly; Gilead Sciences, Inc; MSD; Pfizer; Roche; UCB

The demise of amphibians? Rapid spread of disease is a hazard in our interconnected world. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was identified in amphibian populations about 20 years ago and has caused death and species extinction at a global scale. Scheele et al. found that the fungus has caused declines in amphibian populations everywhere except at its origin in Asia (see the Perspective by Greenberg and Palen). A majority of species and populations are still experiencing decline, but there is evidence of limited recovery in some species. The analysis also suggests some conditions that predict resilience. Science , this issue p. 1459 ; see also p. 1386

The pathophysiology of psoriasis is very complex and involves an interplay between immune cells and keratinocytes. The keratinocyte production of calprotectin (S100A8/A9), induced by the inflammatory psoriatic milieu, may be involved in initiating immune cell invasion, as well as in propagating inflammation. However, the exact role of calprotectin in psoriasis remains unclear. Therapeutic approaches utilizing adalimumab, etanercept and ustekinumab are widely used in psoriatic treatment, but their anti-inflammatory mechanisms are not fully understood. The aim of this study was to investigate, by immunohistochemical analysis, the expression of the heterocomplex S100A8/A9 in lesional skin from psoriatic patients undergoing biological therapy with adalimumab, etanercept or ustekinumab. Our results showed that S100A8/A9, absent or present at very low level in skin biopsies from healthy subjects, is dramatically upregulated in each epidermal layer from psoriatic patients. Interestingly, calprotectin was mainly localized in keratinocyte nuclei from psoriatic patients, suggesting a role of S100A8/A9 in keratinocyte nuclear function. Furthermore, we have shown that the biological treatment induced a drastic reduction of S100A8/A9 expression in skin biopsies from treated patients, correlating with PASI reduction. Our results suggest that calprotectin may play a crucial role as a significant marker of inflammation in psoriasis, and that its reduction of expression may be considered a favourable prognostic marker in psoriasis.

This chapter examines two global education programs in higher education, one in the global North and the other in the global South to explore the shift from command to community in leadership.

The popularity of running has increased in recent years. A rise in the incidence of running-related overuse musculoskeletal injuries has occurred parallel to this. This study investigates the capability of using data from a single inertial measurement unit (IMU) to differentiate between running form in a non-fatigued and fatigued state. Data was captured from an IMU placed on the lumbar spine, right shank and left shank in 21 recreational runners (10 male, 11 female) during separate 400m running trials. The trials were performed prior to and following a fatiguing protocol. Following stride segmentation, IMU signal features were extracted from the labelled (non-fatigued vs fatigued) sensor data and used to train both a Global and Personalised classifier for each individual IMU location. A single IMU on the Lumbar spine displayed 75% accuracy, 73% sensitivity and 77% specificity when using a Global Classifier. A single IMU on the Right Shank displayed 100% accuracy, 100% sensitivity and 100% specificity when using a Personalised Classifier. These results indicate that a single IMU has the potential to differentiate between non-fatigued and fatigued running states with a high level of accuracy.

The fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) infects hundreds of amphibian species and is implicated in global amphibian declines. Bd is comprised of several lineages that differ in pathogenicity, thus, identifying which Bd strains are present in a given amphibian community is essential for understanding host–pathogen dynamics. The presence of Bd has been confirmed in Central Africa, yet vast expanses of this region have not yet been surveyed for Bd prevalence, and the genetic diversity of Bd is largely unknown in this part of the world. Using retrospective surveys of museum specimens and contemporary field surveys, we estimated the prevalence of Bd in Central African island and continental amphibian assemblages, and genotyped strains of Bd present in each community. Our sampling of museum specimens included just a few individuals collected in the Gulf of Guinea archipelago prior to 1998, yet one of these individuals was Bd‐positive indicating that the pathogen has been on Bioko Island since 1966. We detected Bd across all subsequent sample years in our study and found modest support for a relationship between host life history and Bd prevalence, a positive relationship between prevalence and host community species richness, and no significant relationship between elevation and prevalence. The Global Panzootic Lineage (Bd GPL) was present in all the island and continental amphibian communities we surveyed. Our results are consistent with a long‐term and widespread distribution of Bd in amphibian communities of Gabon and the Gulf of Guinea archipelago.

Table S1; Figures S1-S3

Background Cabazitaxel (CAB) was marketed in 2012 in Italy, based on overall survival (OS) benefit demonstrated on the TROPIC study in mCRPC post-docetaxel. The efficacy and tolerability of CAB is overlapping in all age groups, though for very elderly patients (pts) it has never really been verified. Methods We conducted a retrospective, observational real-life study in 57 octogenarian pts, treated with CAB in eleven Italian cancer centers from 2012 to 2018. Feasibility of treatment has been investigated by duration of treatment and its tolerability. Duration of treatment and toxicity profile were also evaluated according to Results This retrospective cohort included 57 mCRPC pts (median age 83.5 years; 21% aged over 85 years), 24% with exclusive bone metastatic disease, 50% with high-volume bone disease, 15% with high volume bone disease and visceral disease. Thirty-nine (68%) received the CGA questionnaire assessment, 34 resulted fit and 5 vulnerable. Ten (14%) had an ECOG PS ≥ 2, 9% received CAB as second-line, 23 (40%) as third-line, 29 (51%) as forth or more line. CAB was administered at 25 mg/sqm in 30 (52%) pts, and 20 mg/sqm or adapted schedules in 27 (48%). These latter schedules were adopted mainly in the subgroups with age > 85 years (75%), PS ≥ 2 (87.5%) and vulnerable according CGA questionnaires (100%). The median duration of treatment with CAB in all pts was 4.8 months, range 1-19 months (mo); 4.5 mo in those aged > 85 years, 4.4 mo in the vulnerable pts and 3.5 mo in pts with PS ≥ 2. The most represented grade 3-4 toxicity in the whole cohort were neutropenia (14%) and diarrhea (10.5%). Six patients (10.5%) drop out the treatment for significant toxicities: 3 febrile neutropenia G4, 2 diarrhea G4 and 1 severe cardiotoxicity, 5 (83%) of these pts received the 25 mg/sqm schedule, and 4 pts (67%) aged between 80-84 yeras with ECOG PS = 0 did not performed the CGA assessment before treatment. One death due to intestinal perforation non-clearly treatment-related was reported. Conclusions Octogenarian patients may be treated with CAB with the 20 mg/sqm regimen associated with less treatment interruptions. The CGA could contribute to better select pts. Legal entity responsible for the study The authors. Funding Has not received any funding. Disclosure All authors have declared no conflicts of interest.

Background Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) is a highly metastatic form of lung cancer and the therapies remain unchanged since 40 years. Therefore, the discovery of novel transcriptomic alterations contributes to develop more effective targeted therapies. Among them, RLF/MYCL1 was described as a recurrent chimera implicated in tumor growth. The non-protein-coding RNA PVT1, linked to MYC expression, and its circular variant circPVT1 are also dysregulated in several malignancies and associated to tumor progression. Nevertheless, their functional and clinical role was only partially explored. We investigated these transcriptomic alterations in SCLC patients and cell lines, aiming at exploring a possible prognostic significance. Methods 12 SCLC cell lines harboring MYC, MYCN or MYCL1 amplifications were tested by RNA-sequencing and RT-PCR for the recurrence of RLF/MYCL1. Moreover, the relative expression of PVT1/circPVT1 was evaluated by RT-qPCR. To investigate whether these transcriptomic alterations could serve as prognostic markers, overall survival (OS) and progression free survival (PFS) curves were plotted by Kaplan-Meier method according to the recurrence of RLF1/MYCL1 and the PVT1/circPVT1 expression levels in a cohort of 29 SCLC patients. Results RNA-seq analysis by ChimeraScan and FusionMap tools identified the occurrence of RLF/MYCL1 in four cell lines, showing the occurrence of two splicing variants originated by the fusion of RLF exon 1 to alternatively MYCL1 exon 2 (longer) or 3 (shorter). The longer variant was also found as recurrent in 16/28 (57.1%) SCLC patients, correlating with a shorter OS (median survival of 11 vs 17 months). Conversely, circPVT1 expression levels, according to the median expression of all SCLC samples, were associated with a better OS (median survival of 14 vs 8 months). No differences were found regarding the DFS and the recurrence of RLF1/MYCL1 or the PVT1/circPVT1 expression levels. Conclusions Our results confirmed the recurrence of the RLF/MYCL1 chimera in a high percentage of SCLC samples. Interestingly, our clinical investigations clearly disclosed that both the chimera and circPVT1 could be used as prognostic markers in SCLC, respectively negative and positive, although our results need to be confirmed in a wider cohort of patients. Legal entity responsible for the study The authors. Funding University of Bari, Italy. Disclosure All authors have declared no conflicts of interest.

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and P. lutzii cause human paracoccidioidomycosis. We have previously characterized the &lt, 200-nt RNA sub-populations contained in fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) from P. brasiliensis Pb18 and other pathogenic fungi. We have presently used the RNA-seq strategy to compare the &lt, 200- and &gt, 200-nt RNA fractions contained in EVs isolated from culture supernatants of P. brasiliensis Pb18, Pb3, and P. lutzii Pb01. Shared mRNA sequences were related to protein modification, translation, and DNA metabolism/biogenesis, while those related to transport and oxidation-reduction were exclusive to Pb01. The presence of functional full-length mRNAs was validated by in vitro translation. Among small non-coding (nc)RNA, 15 were common to all samples, small nucleolar (sno)RNAs were enriched in P. brasiliensis EVs, whereas for P. lutzii there were similar proportions of snoRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. Putative exonic sRNAs were highly abundant in Pb18 EVs. We also found sRNA sequences bearing incomplete microRNA structures mapping to exons. RNA-seq data suggest that extracellular fractions containing Pb18 EVs can modulate the transcriptome of murine monocyte-derived dendritic cells in a transwell system. Considering that sRNA classes are involved in transcription/translation modulation, our general results may indicate that differences in virulence among fungal isolates can be related to their distinct EV-RNA content.

The mainstay of laboratory diagnosis for Lyme disease is two-tiered serological testing, in which a reactive first-tier enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or an immunofluorescence assay is supplemented by separate IgM and IgG immunoblots. Recent data suggest that the C6 ELISA can be substituted for immunoblots without a reduction in either sensitivity or specificity. In this study, the costs of 4 different two-tiered testing strategies for Lyme disease were compared using the median charges for these tests at 6 commercial diagnostic laboratories in 2012. The study found that a whole-cell sonicate ELISA followed by the C6 ELISA was the most cost-effective two-tiered testing strategy for Lyme disease with acute-phase serum samples. We conclude that the C6 ELISA can substitute for immunoblots in the two-tiered testing protocol for Lyme disease without a loss of sensitivity or specificity and is less expensive.

Poster presentada en el 50th ERA-EDTA Congress (European Renal Association - European Dialysis Transplant Association), celebrado del 18 al 21 de mayo de 2013 en Estambul (Turquia)

We analyzed crater SO 2 fluxes from Mt Etna, together with soil CO 2 effluxes from the volcano's flanks, in the period from 2001 to 2005. Between the 2001 and 2002–2003 eruptions, persistently low values of both parameters suggest that no new gas-rich magma was accumulating at shallow depth ( 2 sin-eruptive fluxes during the two eruptions indicated sudden decompression of an un-degassed magma rising along newly-formed eccentric conduits. In November 2003, soil CO 2 data indicate migration of gas-rich magma from deep (> 10 km) to shallow ( 2 fluxes. A similar behavior was observed also during and after the following 2004–2005 eruption. This degassing style matches a period of increased structural instability of the volcanic edifice caused by acceleration of spreading that affected both its eastern and southern flanks. Spreading could have triggered progressively deeper depressurization in the central conduit, inducing release of the more soluble gas (SO 2 ) first, and then of CO 2 , contrary to what was observed before the 2001 eruption. This suggests that the edifice has depressurized, promoting ascent of fresh-magma and increasing permeability favouring release of CO 2 flux. By integrating geochemical and structural data, previous degassing models developed at Mt. Etna have been updated to advance the understanding of eruptive events that occurred in recent years.

This chapter examines two global education programs in higher education, one in the global North and the other in the global South to explore the shift from command to community in leadership.