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Actuarial senescence has been viewed for a long time as an inevitable and uniform process. However, the work on senescence has mainly focused on endotherms with deterministic growth and low regeneration capacity during the adult stage, leading to a strong taxonomic bias in the study of ageing. Recent studies have highlighted that senescence could indeed display highly variable trajectories that correlate with species life-history traits. Slow life histories and indeterminate growth seem to be associated with weak and late senescence. Furthermore, high regenerative abilities could lead to negligible senescence in ectotherms. However, demographic data for species that would allow testing of these hypotheses are scarce. Here, we investigated senescence patterns in ‘true salamanders’ from the Western Palearctic. Our results showed that salamanders have slow life histories and that they experience negligible senescence. This pattern was consistent at both intra- and interspecific levels, suggesting that the absence of senescence may be a phylogenetically conserved trait. The regenerative capacities of salamanders, in combination with other physiological and developmental features such as an indeterminate growth and a low metabolic rate, likely explain why these small ectotherms have lifespans similar to that of large endotherms and, in contrast with most amniotes, undergo negligible senescence. Our study seriously challenges the idea that senescence is a ubiquitous phenomenon in the tree of life.

In this study, comparison of a life history traits (e.g. body size, age at maturity, longevity) of two populations of Phoenicolacerta laevis from different altitudes is being carried out (Anamur, 22 m a.s.l.; Andırın, 1.083 m a.s.l.) for the first time. We applied phalangeal skeletochronology to obtain the age of juveniles and adults. Age was determined by counting the lines of arrested growth (LAGs) in cross-sections. Males in both populations were the larger of the two sexes and a male biased sexual dimorphism was determined for both populations. Body size (SVL) was similar in both sexes and populations. Age of maturity was calculated to be 3 years of age for males and females in both populations. The average age of males and females was calculated as 6.62 ± 0.37 (Mean±SE) and 6.11 ± 0.26 years in Anamur, and 6.15 ± 0.51 and 5.26 ± 0.24 years in Andırın. There was statistically significant variation between sexes, but no significant difference in populations was found in relation to age. For both populations, a significant positive correlation was found between age and SVL in males and females.

Application of taxonomy exclusively based on external morphology, molecular phylogeny and noninvasive anatomical investigation using micro CT scanning together is effective in resolving systematic problems, such as cryptic species. The external morphology, skull osteology and molecular phylogeny of Baran's black-headed dwarf snake, Rhynchocalamus barani, and a subspecies of the Palestine kukri snake, Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus, were examined. Considerable osteological and molecular differences indicate that the genus Rhynchocalamus is paraphyletic. As a result, Baran's black-headed dwarf snake should be referred to a monotypic genus, Muhtarophis gen. nov. Based on morphology and molecular data, R. satunini, previously known as a subspecies of R. melanocephalus, should be assigned the rank of species.

The distribution of Iranolacerta brandtii previously was limited to the Iran. A new locality is reported here in eastern Turkey. Data based on meristic pholidosis characters, metric measurements and color-patter features of the specimens from eastern Turkey were given in detail and compared with data given in the previous literature. In addition, the first record of Iranolacerta brandtii from outside of Iran is reported here.

Darevskia rudis bolkardaghica ssp. nov. (Fig. 5 c–d) Holotype. ZDEU 144 / 2009 (n. 6). An adult male. Karagöl, Ulukışla, Niġde, Central Anatolia, 19 -VII- 2009, leg. Y. Kumlutaş. Fixed and conserved in alcohol (ethanol). Deposited in the ZDEU collection. Paratypes. ZDEU 144 / 2009. 5 males, 5 females, 2 juveniles, Karagöl, Ulukışla, Niġde, Central Anatolia, 19 - VII- 2009, leg. Y. Kumlutaş. Eight specimens in the ZDEU collection and four (including the cleared and stained for bone study) in the O. Arribas scientific collection. Derivatio nominis. From the name of the mountains where the lizards were collected: Bolkar Daġı (also spelled Bulghar Dagh) in the Taurus Mountains. Diagnosis. A dorsally very clear-toned D. rudis characterized by separated rostral and frontonasal scales. Supraciliar granula series are usually complete and uninterrupted. The massseteric plate is smaller or similar to the tympanic plate. The number of scales between masseteric and tympanic range from 2 to 4. Scales are tight and moderately keeled. Numerous dorsalia and relatively long heads (head index). Low values for femoralia, lamellae, hindlimb length, circumanalia and anal size. Relatively high maxillar and dentary teeth counts for its size. Sternal fontanelle with odd, irregular shapes (such as sand-clock or nearly cordiform). Postfrontal and postorbitary subequal. Postorbitary overlaps with squamosal along near one half of its length. Description of Holotype. An adult male. Tail tip autotomized and regenerating. Fixed and conserved with ethanol. Coloration and pattern (in alcohol): Dorsal tract gray, with very small and faint dots all over the dorsum (less in the neck area). No vertebral band. Pileus almost unspotted. Lateral (temporal) bands very decomposed, forming a faint reticule from which only some black dots and a faint interconnecting network remain. This band is more present in the fore halves of the flanks, where black-surrounded occelli encircle vivid blue spots. Outermost ventral scales with conspicuous blue points that form a continuous line. Belly whitish and totally unspotted. Scalation: Number of supraciliar granules left side, 9; supraciliar granules right side, 10; supraciliar plates left side, 6; supraciliar plates right side, 5; supralabial plates left side, 4; supralabial plates right side, 4; sublabial plates left, 6; sublabial plates right side, 6; collaria, 9; gularia, 26; supratemporal scales left side, 3; ventralia, 24 transversal rows; ventral plates (longitudinal rows), 6; enlarged circumanal (preanal) scales, 2; circumanalia (all preanal scales), 8; femoral pores left side, 19; femoral pores right side, 20; scales between femoral pores and outer plates left side, 5; subdigital lamellae left side, 23; subdigital lamellae right side, 22; tibials left side, 16; dorsalia, 48; temporals- 1 left side, 3; temporals- 1 right side, 3; temporals- 2 left side, 2; temporals- 2 right side, 2. Rostral and frontonasal scales are separated. Left parietal and frontoparietal are eroded. Maseteric scale is present and of intermediate size. Supraciliar granula series are complete and continuous. Tight scales are almost not keeled, but tail ones very strongly keeled, as in other rudis. Biometry: Snout-vent length (SVL), 59.68 mm; pileus width, 6.5 mm; pileus length, 12.88 mm; head width, 8.4 mm; head length, 15.84 mm; forelimb length, 21.28 mm; hindlimb length, 33.18 mm; anal wide, 4.16 mm; anal length, 2.10 mm. Intrasubspecific variation. Descriptive statistics and the variation range of the mophometric and scalation characters are given in Table 3 a–b. Rostral and frontonasal scales are separated. Supraciliar granula series are usually complete and uninterrupted. The massseteric plate is smaller than tympanic. The number of scales between masseteric and tympanic is 2 to 4. Tibial scales are moderately keeled. Specimens of the type series show variations in the dorsal pattern. Adult males can have better developed spots than the holotype, but without forming any band in the dorsum in the type series, as much, the spotting approaches to a faint network. Other specimens can have a vertebral band composed of big transverse dots, as in other rudis, and even less well-patterned specimens exist. Lateral bands can also be more developed, but always composed of spots. The fore parts of the band are always more distinct marked than the rear parts. The belly is white or grayish-gray. Females have, in general, the best distinct patterns, with big spots. Blue occelli are less numerous than in males, and the blue points in outermost ventrals less developed. Hatchlings as well as adults clear background-toned, with very distinct very scarce pattern. Green tails, contrary to other rudis ssp. Photographs of this subspecies can be found in Schmidtler et al. (1990) and Panner (2000). Habitat and ecology. The specimens were captured on rocks while they were sunning themselves. The altitude at which the sampling was conducted was 2560 m a.s.l. The specimens were collected during sunny conditions and a temperature of 15 ºC. The collection locality was close to Karagöl. The biotope has alpine characteristics but lacks tree formations. The alpine vegetation mainly includes Astragalus plumosus, A. angustifolius, Acantholium ulicium and Onobrychis cornuta (Fig. 6 c). Distribution. Above 2000 m, almost up to 2800 m on rocks of Oromediterranean xerophylic pastures and near mountain lakes. Bolkar Daġı and Aladaġ. Other populations such as the Hasan Daġı one (Schmidtler et al. 1990) could pertain to this form, but this extreme remains to be studied. Remarks. Our lizards belong undoubtedly to D. rudis and are very similar to D. r. obscura. The striking pattern differences are due, in our opinion, due to the inhabited substrate (very clear toned recifal limestone in the case of D. r. bolkardaghica), whereas northern Turkey subspecies generally inhabit dark-toned acid rocks. The relationships of the nominal D. valentini lantzicyreni (Loc. Typ: Erciyes Daġı) will be studied more deeply: they could belong to D. rudis rather than D. valentini. The reproduction of this form has been described in captivity by Panner (2000). He reports an extremely long duration of the copula (max. 2 h and 4 min). The clutch consists of two to four very elongated eggs and seems to be laid towards mid July (own data). A case of siblings is known (Panner 2000). Anatolia is a predominantly mountainous area whose diverse geomorphology produces many different climatic regions and vegetation types. These characteristics and the geomorphology of Anatolia were described by Sindaco et al. (2000) in a checklist study of Anatolian herpetofauna. Anatolian mountains have played an important role in speciation and in the definition of biogeographical subregions. These mountains have been defined as “hotspots” of biodiversity for many different organisms (Çıplak 2003, 2004). The eastern part of Pontic mountain range situated in North Anatolia is high, continuous and lies close to the Black Sea. According to Sindaco et al. (2000), northern mountains including Pontic Mountains are one of the main relief regions for reptile and amphibian species in Anatolia. Veith et al. (2003) stated that Pontic Mountains are the refugium for Anatolian mountain frogs. They also pointed that Anatolian mountain frogs spread from the Pontic refugium to other sides of Anatolia in the Pleistocene. According to Billing et al. (1990), Pontic Mountains might have been an important dispersal route for many Euro-Siberian snakes such as Coronella austriaca Laurenti, 1768, Zamenis longissimus (Laurenti, 1768) and Vipera transcaucasiana Boulenger, 1913. Our present results also suggest that this area has played an important role in the speciation and differentiation of the D. rudis complex, with one species (D. bithynica) in their western parts, and several well-differentiated subspecies of D. rudis in the east, such as D. r. mirabilis ssp. nov.. The Bolkar Mountain is the central part of the Taurus region which rises along the southern edge of the Anatolia Plateau. Based on rates of endemism among amphibians and reptiles, Schmidtler (1998) described five centers of endemism in the Taurus Mountains: Lycia, Pamphylia/Isauria, Bolkar, Antitaurus, and Eastern Taurus. The Bolkar and the Antitaurus are well known for their endemic reptile and amphibian subspecies such as Anatololacerta danfordi danfordi (Günther, 1876), Ablepharus chernovi ressli Schmidtler, 1997, Eirenis aurolineatus (Venzmer, 1919), Montivipera bulgardaghica (Nilson & Andren, 1985), Rana holtzi Werner, 1898 and now D. r. bolkardaghica ssp. nov. (Nilson & Andren 1985; Eiselt & Schmidtler 1987; Schmidtler 1993; Schmidtler 1997; Schmidtler 1998). Sindaco et al. (2000) stated that the richest unit with 43 reptile species is located mainly in the Adana, Kayseri and Niġde provinces including the Bolkar Mountains in Turkey.

Darevskia rudis mirabilis ssp. nov. (Fig. 5 a –b) Holotype. ZDEU 145 / 2002 (n 9). Ovit-pass, Trabzon, northeastern Anatolia. Sample number 4. 06 -IX- 2002. Adult male. leg. İ. Baran, Y. Kumlutaş, Ç. Ilgaz, A. Avcı. Conserved in ZDEU collection. Paratypes. 12 males, 9 females, 2 juveniles. Same locality, date and collectors as holotype. All in ZDEU collection except 6 (including the cleared and stained specimens for bone study) in the O. Arribas scientific collection. Derivatio nominis. The subspecies name is feminine and means wonderful, amazing, unique and miraculous in Latin. The name refers to its vivid and beautiful coloration in respect to other D. rudis subspecies. Diagnosis. A Darevskia rudis is characterized by having rostral and frontonasal plates either in contact or separated (in contact in 50 % specimens). Supraciliar granula almost always in an interrupted row. Masseteric plate longer than the tympanic one, separated only by a single row (rarely more) of scales. Tibial scales moderately keeled. Relatively high (for D. rudis) values for dorsalia, circumanalia, and relative anal-plate size. Relatively low values for femoralia and hindlimb length as well as short head. Postfrontal and postorbitary subequal (or postfrontal only slightly longer than postocular). Interclavicle cruciform, with tips not incurved. Description of the holotype: An adult male. Tail autotomized. Fixed with ethanol and formaline. Conserved in alcohol (ethanol). Coloration and pattern (in alcohol): Dorsal tract greenish-gray, with black or dark brownish (more towards sides) dark pattern. Pileus, especially in its hind-half, with medium-sized dark spots, most being well defined and others fainter. Vertebral (occipital) dark band composed of transversal, relatively narrow spots, sometimes decomposed in two or more independent spots at each vertebral side. This band does not occupy the entire dorsal tract, but leaves narrow areas without dark pattern along this band and the lateral (temporal) bands. This band continues along the dorsal part of the tail basis. Lateral (temporal) bands extend from the temporal area of the head along the sides until the tail. The upper edges of the lateral bands very scalloped (irregular, serrated), encircling round whitish spots that give the band a slightly reticulated aspect. The lower limit is more faint and difficult to discern. The belly is whitish with slight traces of the yellow color that it has in life. No spotting on the belly, either in the gular or submaxillar area. Scalation: Number of supraciliar granules left side, 4 (interrupted series); supraciliar granules right side, 4; supraciliar plates left side, 6; supraciliar plates right side, 6; supralabial plates left side, 4; supralabial plates right side, 4; sublabial plates left, 5; sublabial plates right side, 6; collaria, 7; gularia, 25; supratemporal scales left side, 3; ventralia, 27 transversal rows; ventral plates (longitudinal rows), 6; enlarged circumanal (preanal) scales, 1; circumanalia (all preanal scales), 10; femoral pores left side, 18; femoral pores right side, 18; scales between femoral pores and outer plates left side, 5; subdigital lamellae left side, 27; subdigital lamellae right side, 24; tibials left side, 16; dorsalia, 45; temporals- 1 left side, 2; temporals- 1 right side, 2; temporals- 2 left side, 2; temporals- 2 right side, 2. Rostral and frontonasal scales are in contact. An azygos (supernumerary) scale is presents among prefrontals, frontal and frontonasal scales. Masseteric scale present and of intermediate size. Supraciliar granula are totally interrupted. Tight scales are weakly or moderately keeled, but tail ones are very strongly keeled, as in other rudis. Biometry: Snout-vent length (SVL), 63.9 mm; pileus width, 7.56 mm; pileus length, 13.44 mm; head width, 8.96 mm; head length, 14.36 mm; forelimb length, 19.10 mm; hindlimb length, 27.60 mm; anal wide, 4.14 mm; anal length, 2.16 mm. Intrasubspecific variation. Descriptive statistics and variation range of the morphometric and scalation characters are given in Table 3 a–b. Rostral and frontonasal plates can be in contact or separated. Supraciliar granula almost always in a clearly interrupted row. Masseteric plate is larger than the tympanic one, both separated by only a single or more rarely two rows of scales. Tight scales are moderately keeled. Specimens of the type series show variations in the dorsal pattern. Adult males can have the vertebral band dots less well individualized and transversal, but more irregular and interconnected. In others, the vertebral band can be totally separated into two paravertebral rows of dots (n. 19), with a clear (background colour or slightly darker) stripe between them. One male shows a vermiculated dorsal tract and two dorsolateral stripes, more clear than the general dorsal tract, only distinct in the first half of the dorsum (n. 11). In life, lizards show diverse tones of greens (green, malaquite green, grass green) with blue axillar occelli and abundant blue points in the outer ventrals, both in males and females (Fig. 6 a –b). Females are very similarly patterned to the males. Usually as the holotype, some more irregular. Also two paravertebral rows (n. 16). Young specimens are basically similar to adults but with less contrasted patterns and less vividly green tones (greenish brown, brownish and brownish-gray) with whitish or yellowish axillar occelli. Undersides are unspotted in both sexes and subadults. In life, the underside is yellow in both sexes, occasionally with white throats. The upper side of the tail is greenish brown or brownish gray. Colour photographs of these lizards can be seen at: (http://www. lacerta.de/ AS / Bildarchiv.php?Species= 322 &Kind= 1 &RegioId= 727 &Regio= Türkei / Ovit-Pass. Last accessed 18 /09/ 2012). Habitat and ecology. The specimens were captured under stones on slopes of a hill covered by grass vegetation. The altitude at which the sampling was conducted was 2550 m a.s.l. The specimens were collected during sunny conditions and at temperatures between 15 and 22 ºC. The collection locality was close to a stream fed by snowmelt that is habitat of Rana macrocnemis Boulenger, 1885. There are no tree formations on the habitat, which includes grass such as Carex glauca, Geranium dissectum, Campanula tridenta and Veronica gentianoides. Distribution. Few sites are known. Currently known from the higher parts of the Kaçkar mountains (Ovit Pass and surrounding areas) above 2000 m, in alpine environments with wet meadows and rocks. Probably a more extended range in these mountains, perhaps also at lower altitudes in concrete habitats.

Rhynchocalamus barani n. sp. Holotype: ZDEU 122 / 2006: 1, Ψ, collected at Amanos Mountain (36 ° 50 ’N, 36 ° 25 ’E; altitude 1310 m a.s.l.), 34 km E of Dörtyol, Hatay Province, Turkey, 0 1.05. 2006, leg. A. Avcı, C. Yılmaz. Paratype: ZDEU 122 / 2006: 2, ɗ, same data as for holotype. Material used for comparison: R. m. melanocephalus: ZDEU 123 / 2006. 1 – 2 ɗ, Sofular Village, Harbiye, Hatay, 29.04. 2006, leg. A. Avcı, C. Yılmaz; ZDEU 124 / 2006. 1 Ψ, Kuruyer Village, Hatay, 30.04. 2006, leg. A. Avcı, C. Yılmaz. R. m. satunini: ZDEU 125 / 2006. 1 ɗ, Nurdaġı, Gaziantep, 0 3.05. 2006, leg. A. Avcı, C. Yılmaz. Description of holotype (Figures 1–5). Eight maxillary teeth, the posterior teeth long and well­developed, broad at the base with an impression; palatine teeth absent; mandibular teeth slightly longer anteriorly than posteriorly. Head small, not distinct from the neck, with oblique shape at anterior side. Head scales between rostral and posterior margin of parietal area not keeled. Temporals not keeled. Rostrum with height of 2.06 mm and width of 2.66 mm, bordered by two upper labials, two nasals and two internasals. Rostrum curved towards top of the head and intruding between the internasals. Internasals of trapezoid shape, with a suture length approximately equal to length of the prefrontal suture. Nostrils situated on one nasal at either side. Distance between nostrils 3.16 mm. Loreal at either side in contact with 1 st and 2 nd upper labials. One preocular and two postoculars on each side. Eyes small with circular pupil of 1.78 mm diameter. Length of narrow frontal 3.10 mm; width 2.60 mm. Five upper labials, 3 rd in contact with eyes. Seven lower labials on left side and eight on right side. Three and four pairs of lower labials in contact with anterior chin shields at the left and right side, respectively. Parietal length shorter than the distance from posterior tip of the rostral to the posterior tip of frontal (3.54 mm versus 4.64 mm). One temporal and two posttemporals on each side. The number of dorsal plus temporal scales surrounding the posterior margin of the parietals 13. Seventeen dorsal scale rows at mid­body, 17 on neck one head­length behind head, 17 dorsal scale rows on one head­length anterior to anal and two anal plates. One gular scale in contact with anterior inframaxillar. One hundred and seventy three ventrals and 65 / 65 + 1 subcaudals. Pileus length 9.00 mm, pileus width 4.48 mm and head height 4.04 mm. Snout­vent length 312.98 mm and tail length 89.60 mm. Basic color of the head (from tip of the rostral to posterior margin of the parietals) ash­gray. This basic color extends to the first upper labial plate at the flanks of the head. A narrow black blotch present from the lower part of eyes up to the contact of the 3 rd and 4 th upper labials. The 2 nd, 3 / 4 part of 3 rd, 4 / 5 part of 4 th and 2 / 3 part of 5 th upper labials of white color. Other lower labials also white except last lower labial that is black. Narrow black neck band present at the upper part of the head, from margin of the parietals to top of the posterior margin of the temporals, in the gular region of the head in contact with dorsals over a width of six scales. No contact with ventrals at the lower part of the head. Length of head patterns (from tip of rostrum), proportional to snout­vent length 4.1 mm. Temporals white (ca. 75 %) or otherwise black. The basic color of the dorsum reddish brown without spots. Lower part of the head and ventral separated by black head band, otherwise white without spots. Lower part of the tail white including tail tip. Description of paratype (Figure 6). Dentition features of the paratype similar to that of holotype (in having eight maxillary teeth; comparatively strong subequal in size; posterior broad at the base, with an impression, but without longitudinal groove; palatine teeth absent and the mandibular teeth slightly longer anteriorly than posteriorly). Paratype similar to holotype in most morphological characters, except for loreal plate absent. Color­pattern very similar to that of holotype. Counts of gular scales in a row between posterior inframaxillars higher and counts of ventrals and dorsal plus temporal scales surrounding the posterior margin of the parietals lower than in holotype (see Table 1). Differential diagnosis: Rhynchocalamus barani n. sp. differs from congeneric species (R. melanocephalus melanocephalus, R. m. satunini and R. arabicus) in having higher number of dorsals (17 instead of 15) and lower number of ventrals (163–173 instead of 180–240) and upper labials in contact with eye (1 instead of 2) and by an oblique shape of the head at the anterior side. It also differs by a characteristic color­pattern of the body and the basic color of the head, by the presence of a black blotch under the eye running into a narrow stripe, all as described above. In contrast to other species of the genus the ground color of the dorsum is reddish brown with no spotting. Habitat and ecology. Two specimens of R. barani n. sp. were captured between 16.30 and 18.30 hours, under stones along a stream (Figure 7). The altitude where the sampling was carried out was 1310 m a.s.l. The specimens were collected during sunny conditions and a temperature of 15 ºC. Other amphibian and reptile species observed are Salamandra infraimmaculata, Ablepharus budaki, Laudakia stellio, Lacerta laevis, Lacerta cappadocica, Lacerta media, Ophisops elegans and Eirenis barani. The maximum altitude of the research area ranges from 50 m a.s.l. in the west to 2240 m in the east (Türkmen & Düzenli 1998). It is composed of Mesozoic and Cretaceous limestone, Upper Cretaceous ultra­basic Gabro and Serpentine rock and Tertiary marl and Quaternary alluvial deposits in the plains. Common soil formations are ‘Brown Calcarousless, ‘Brown Forest', ‘Terrarosa’, ‘Reddish­ Brown Mediterranean’, ‘Colluvial’ and mixed soils (Akman 1973). The climate is Mediterranean, characterized by dry summers and rainy winters (Türkmen & Düzenli 1998 and Table 2). The study area lies within the Mediterranean Phytogeographical Region (Türkmen & Düzenli 1998). Three main vegetation types in the study area are the ‘Macchie’ vegetation from 50 to 600 m, the ‘Forest’ vegetation from 350 to 1900 m and the ‘Steppe’ vegetation at 1900 m and over. According to Türkmen & Düzenli (1998) common species include Quercus coccifera, Erica manipuliflora, Rhamnus punctatus var. angustifolius, Pistacia terebinthus subsp. palaestina, Cotinus coggyrea, Myrtus communis (Macchie), Fagus orientalis, Pinus brutia, Quercus cerris var. cerris, Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana, Carpinus orientalis, Cedrus libani and Abies cilicica (Forest) and Acantholimon libanoticum, Marrubium globosum subsp. glubosum, Astragalus macrourus, Ferula elaeochytris, Rosa pulverulenta, Cotoneaster nummularia, Vincetoxicum tmoleum, Asperula stricta subsp. monticola, Thymus kotschyanus var. glabrescens, Verbascum amanum, Asphodelina damascena subsp. damascena Echinops ritro and Eremurus spectabilis (Steppe). Distribution. Rhynchocalamus barani n. sp. is at present only known from the type locality (Figure 8). Etymology. The new species is in dedication to Prof. Dr. İ brahim BARAN of the University of Dokuz Eylül, İzmir, to acknowledge his prolific and uninterrupted contribution to the herpetology of the Turkey.