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Some hibernating bats in thermally stable, subterranean roosts have experienced precipitous declines from white-nose syndrome (WNS). However, some WNS-affected species also use thermally unstable roosts during winter which may impact their torpor patterns and WNS susceptibility. From November to March 2017-2019, we used temperature-sensitive transmitters to document winter torpor patterns of tri-colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus) using thermally unstable roosts in the upper Coastal Plain of South Carolina. Daily mean roost temperature fluctuation was 4.8 ± 2°C SD in bridges and 4.0 ± 1.9°C in accessible cavities with maximum fluctuations of 13.8°C and 10.5°C, respectively. Mean torpor bout duration was 2.7 ± 2.8 days and was negatively related to ambient temperature and positively related to precipitation. Bats maintained non-random arousal patterns focused near dusk and were active on 33.6% of tracked days. Fifty-one percent of arousals contained passive rewarming. Normothermic bout duration, general activity, and activity away from the roost were positively related to ambient temperature, and activity away from the roost was negatively related to barometric pressure. Our results suggest ambient weather conditions influence winter torpor patterns of tri-colored bats using thermally unstable roosts. Short torpor bout durations and potential nighttime foraging during winter by tri-colored bats in thermally unstable roosts contrasts with behaviors of tri-colored bats in thermally stable roosts. Therefore, tri-colored bat using thermally unstable roosts may be less susceptible to WNS. These results highlight the importance of understanding the effect of roost thermal stability on winter torpor patterns and the physiological flexibility of broadly distributed hibernating species.

Tricolored bats (Perimyotis subflavus) that roost in subterranean hibernacula have experienced precipitous declines from white-nose syndrome (WNS); however, understudied populations also use during winter non-subterranean roosts such as tree cavities, bridges, and foliage. Our objectives were to determine winter roost use by tricolored bats in an area devoid of subterranean roosts, determine roost microclimates to relate them to growth requirements of the fungal causal agent of WNS, and determine habitat factors influencing winter tree selection. From November to March 2017–2019, we used radiotelemetry to track 15 bats to their day roosts in the upper Coastal Plain of South Carolina and recorded microclimates in accessible tree cavities and bridges. We also characterized habitat and tree characteristics of 24 used trees and 153 random, available trees and used discrete choice models to determine selection. Roost structures included I-beam bridges, cavities in live trees, and foliage. Bridges were warmer and less humid than cavities. Roost temperatures often were amenable to fungal growth (< 19.5°C) but fluctuated widely depending on ambient temperatures. Bats used bridges on colder days (8.7°C ± 5.0 SD) and trees on warmer days (11.3°C ± 5.4). Bats selected low-decay trees closer to streams in areas with high canopy closure and cavity abundance. Bats also appeared to favor hardwood forests and avoid pine forests. Our results suggest that access to multiple roost microclimates might be important for tricolored bats during winter, and forest management practices that retain live trees near streams and foster cavity formation in hardwood forests likely will benefit this species. Our results also suggest tricolored bats using bridge and tree roosts might be less susceptible to WNS than bats using subterranean hibernaculum roosts. Thus, forests in areas without subterranean hibernacula in the southeastern United States that support bats during winter might represent important refugia from WNS for multiple species.

Collaborative monitoring over broad scales and levels of ecological organization can inform conservation efforts necessary to address the contemporary biodiversity crisis. An important challenge to collaborative monitoring is motivating local engagement with enough buy-in from stakeholders while providing adequate top-down direction for scientific rigor, quality control, and coordination. Collaborative monitoring must reconcile this inherent tension between top-down control and bottom-up engagement. Highly mobile and cryptic taxa, such as bats, present a particularly acute challenge. Given their scale of movement, complex life histories, and rapidly expanding threats, understanding population trends of bats requires coordinated broad-scale collaborative monitoring. The North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) reconciles top-down, bottom-up tension with a hierarchical master sample survey design, integrated data analysis, dynamic data curation, regional monitoring hubs, and knowledge delivery through web-based infrastructure. NABat supports collaborative monitoring across spatial and organizational scales and the full annual lifecycle of bats.

Most bat species depend on forests for roosting, foraging, and drinking during part or all of their life cycles. Many of the world’s forests are managed using a variety of silvicultural treatments and, over the past 40 years, researchers have studied the responses of bats to these treatments. I carried out a qualitative synthesis of the literature on roosting and foraging responses of temperate insectivorous bats to silvicultural treatments at the stand level to determine what treatments may be most compatible with conservation and to guide future research. Eighty-eight studies from Canada, the United States, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, met review criteria. Based on my results, foraging and commuting habitat use was less affected by changes in forest structure and composition than roost habitat use. Mid-rotation treatments that reduce clutter while retaining overstory structure (e.g., thinning and fire) had more neutral and positive effects than treatments that removed all or most of the overstory. Based on an examination of the methods and assumptions of the 88 studies included in this review, I conclude that future studies should: 1) strive to account for treatment effects on detection probability of bats when using acoustic detectors; 2) examine responses of bats to silvicultural treatments outside the maternity season; 3) examine demographic and physiological responses to silvicultural treatments in addition to habitat use to fully understand the effects of these treatments on bat populations; and 4) use stand-level data to model forest management effects across large landscapes and over long time periods.

Understanding animals' behavioral and physiological responses to pathogenic diseases is critical for management and conservation. One such disease, white-nose syndrome (WNS), has greatly affected bat populations throughout eastern North America leading to significant population declines in several species. Although tricolored bat (

Background Bats are important components of forested ecosystems and are found in forests worldwide. Consequently, they often interact with fire. Previous reviews of the effects of fire on bats have focused on prescribed fire effects, in part due to the limited number of studies on bat responses to wildfire. However, over the past several years, studies on bat responses to wildfire and prescribed fire have increased considerably. We reviewed this rapidly expanding body of literature to determine whether bats respond differently to prescribed fire and wildfire, and the important factors driving those differences. We also examined regional similarities and differences in bat response to prescribed fire and wildfire and identified areas in need of further research. Results Our review included 52 studies (29 prescribed fire, 23 wildfire) from North and South America, Europe, Australia, and Africa, although studies from Europe, South America, and Africa were limited. In general, we found that bats show positive or neutral responses to prescribed fire, whereas a greater proportion of negative responses were reported for wildfire. However, some of the negative responses to wildfire are short-lived or local, suggesting that bats may be resilient to the effects of fire. Factors such as fire severity, fire frequency, time since last burn, burn extent, season of burn, and pyrodiversity were all found to be important drivers of bats’ responses to both prescribed fire and wildfire. Conclusions The importance of the spatial and temporal aspects of fire suggests that these factors need to be considered when designing future studies and interpreting results. Pyrodiversity may be a particularly important concept to further our understanding of bats’ responses to fire. We found several gaps in our knowledge including lack of information on direct effects of fire (e.g., mortality), regional and taxonomic biases, effects of wildfire on roosting habitat, and the effects of climate change. Although current studies suggest that fire may be an important management tool for improving bat habitat, the threat of more frequent, extensive, and severe wildfires may put additional stress on some bat populations, particularly those being impacted by disease, habitat loss and fragmentation, and climate change.

White-nose syndrome (WNS), an epizootic disease caused by an invasive fungus, threatens bat populations across North America. WNS-induced changes in summer bat populations could impact functional diversity. We assessed the shift in relative abundance within an assemblage of bats in a temperate southern Appalachian forest in North Carolina and Tennessee from 2009 through 2016. We used mixed linear effects models to identify bat species significantly impacted by WNS and those showing resistance, and to determine effects on reproductive rates for WNS-affected species. Four once-common species — the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), Indiana bat (M. sodalis), northern long-eared bat (M. septentrionalis), and tri-colored bat (Perimyotis subflavus) — showed significant and dramatic declines (82–99%), while the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), red bat (Lasiurus borealis), Rafinesque’s big-eared bat (Corynorhinus rafinesquii), and small-footed bat (M. leibii) did not decline significantly after WNS was detected on the landscape. We detected no significant interactions between reproductive condition and WNS period (pre- and post-arrival of the disease). Declines in summer populations mirrored declines detected in nearby winter hibernacula. Because the loss of WNS-affected bat species could negatively impact ecosystem health, it is important to monitor bat, insect, and plant community responses wherever WNS threatens bats. We hypothesize that, in the absence of small-bodied bats, there might be increases in populations of small forest pests, such as defoliating moths, as larger WNS-resistant bats may avoid or miss these small prey.

Prescribed burning has become more common for the management of eastern forests in North America, so understanding if and how foraging bats respond to structural changes generated by fire is of increasing importance. Our objective was to investigate the effects of post-fire landscape conditions on the occurrence of foraging bats in mixed forests of the Cumberland Plateau physiographic region. We deployed Anabat II bat detectors in 164 paired burned and unburned forest sites for ≥2 nights from mid-May through August 2014 and 2015 to monitor bat foraging and commuting habitat use. We conducted vegetation surveys to quantify site-specific structural characteristics, which indicated that measures of structure were significantly lower in burned sites than unburned sites. We used Program Presence to test a priori hypotheses of species-specific probability of detection and site occupancy related to weather, burn history (i.e., site burned within the past 10 years or unburned), and site and landscape characteristics. Bats were detected at 94% of burned sites and 83% of unburned sites. Probability of detection was affected by weather conditions, vegetative structure, and burn history for most species. Occupancy for all species/species groups examined was positively associated with burning and generally associated with lower vegetative structure. Although burn severity did not affect most species groups, occupancy of Myotis species and tri-colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus) was lower in sites that received moderate severity burns than in sites that received low severity burns. Therefore, while prescribed fire may provide vegetative structure conducive to efficient foraging for all bats of the Cumberland Plateau, our results demonstrate that retaining some unburned forests while creating mosaics of lower and higher severity burns across the landscape will result in favorable foraging conditions for all resident bat species.

Lasiurus intermedius (Northern Yellow Bat) and Perimyotis subflavus (Tricolored Bat) are species of conservation concern in South Carolina and are threatened by loss of roosting habitat. To better understand summer roost selection, we radio-tracked individuals to roost trees during May through August of 2018 and 2019. We characterized roost trees, sites surrounding roost trees, and unused but available trees for each roost occasion. We used discrete-choice models to test hypotheses of factors influencing roost-site selection. Tri-colored Bats used foliage and Tillandsia usneoides (Spanish Moss) in hardwood trees and selected trees with high densities of Spanish Moss. Northern Yellow Bats used dead palm fronds in Sabal palmetto (Cabbage Palm Trees) or Spanish Moss in trees with high densities of Spanish Moss. Our results suggest that conservation of maritime and bottomland forests with trees that have high densities of important roost structures like Spanish Moss and dead palm fronds would benefit these species.

Assessing the scope and severity of threats is necessary for evaluating impacts on populations to inform conservation planning. Quantitative threat assessment often requires monitoring programs that provide reliable data over relevant spatial and temporal scales, yet such programs can be difficult to justify until there is an apparent stressor. Leveraging efforts of wildlife management agencies to record winter counts of hibernating bats, we collated data for 5 species from over 200 sites across 27 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces from 1995 to 2018 to determine the impact of white‐nose syndrome (WNS), a deadly disease of hibernating bats. We estimated declines of winter counts of bat colonies at sites where the invasive fungus that causes WNS (Pseudogymnoascus destructans) had been detected to assess the threat impact of WNS. Three species undergoing species status assessment by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Myotis septentrionalis, Myotis lucifugus, and Perimyotis subflavus) declined by more than 90%, which warrants classifying the severity of the WNS threat as extreme based on criteria used by NatureServe. The scope of the WNS threat as defined by NatureServe criteria was large (36% of Myotis lucifugus range) to pervasive (79% of Myotis septentrionalis range) for these species. Declines for 2 other species (Myotis sodalis and Eptesicus fuscus) were less severe but still qualified as moderate to serious based on NatureServe criteria. Data‐sharing across jurisdictions provided a comprehensive evaluation of scope and severity of the threat of WNS and indicated regional differences that can inform response efforts at international, national, and state or provincial jurisdictions. We assessed the threat impact of an emerging infectious disease by uniting monitoring efforts across jurisdictional boundaries and demonstrated the importance of coordinated monitoring programs, such as the North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat), for data‐driven conservation assessments and planning., Article impact statement: Data sharing and coordinated monitoring are needed to assess species’ response to threats to inform conservation planning at relevant scales.

Confirming presence and distribution of a species is necessary for effective conservation. However, obtaining robust occupancy estimates and confidently identifying factors important to occupancy may be difficult for rare and elusive species. Further, in surveys to assess presence, false-positive detections bias results; however, false-positive occupancy models can resolve this bias and, thus, better support conservation. We assessed the performance of false-positive versus standard occupancy models and important factors predicting presence for a low-density bat population in the southern Appalachian Mountains. From May to August 2013–2015, we surveyed 35 sites for northern long-eared bats (Myotis septentrionalis) using both mist-net and acoustic methods. We compared AICcvalues for 13 standard occupancy models and 13 corresponding false-positive occupancy models. In our model comparison, false-positive models received more support, while none of the standard occupancy models were plausible. False-positive occupancy models produced a wider range of probability of occupancy estimates (0.004–0.998) and lower mean occupancy estimate (0.62) than standard models (0.482–0.970, mean = 0.86). Weighted parameter estimates for important predictors in two plausible false-positive occupancy models indicated the probability of occupancy for northern long-eared bats was higher at less-rugged, lowerelevation sites. In contrast, there was more ambiguity regarding the most plausible standard occupancy models and important predictors of occupancy from standard models. Due to low capture rates and the uncertainty of acoustic identifications, we recommend coupling a certain method with uncertain methods when surveying rare and elusive bat species. Applying false-positive occupancy models to our data yielded less-biased site-specific occupancy estimates and informative predictors, and, hence, more reliable predictions to inform conservation management plans.

Bats in the eastern United States are facing numerous threats and many species are in decline. Although several species of bats commonly roost in cliffs, researchers know little about use of cliffs for foraging and roosting. Because rock climbing is a rapidly growing sport and may cause disturbance to bats, our objectives were to examine use of cliff habitats by bats and to assess the effects of climbing on their activity. We used radiotelemetry to track small-footed bats Myotis leibii to day roosts, and Anabat SD2 detectors to compare bat activity between climbed and unclimbed areas of regularly climbed cliff faces, and between climbed and unclimbed cliffs. We tracked four adult male small-footed bats to nine day roosts, all of which were in various types of crevices including five cliff-face roosts (three on climbed and two on unclimbed faces). Bat activity was high along climbed cliffs and did not differ between climbed and unclimbed areas of climbed cliffs. In contrast, overall bat activity was significantly higher along climbed cliffs than unclimbed cliffs; species richness did not differ between climbed and unclimbed cliffs or areas. Lower activity along unclimbed cliffs may have been related to lower cliff heights and more clutter along these cliff faces. Due to limited access to unclimbed cliffs of comparable size to climbed cliffs, we could not thoroughly test the effects of climbing on bat foraging and roosting activity. However, the high overall use of climbed and unclimbed cliff faces for foraging and commuting that we observed suggests that cliffs may be important habitat for a number of bat species. Additional research on bats' use of cliff faces will improve our understanding of the factors that affect their use of this habitat including the impacts of climbing.

Coarse woody debris (CWD) is a structural feature in forests throughout the United States that provides unique cover, runways, and microclimate for various wildlife species. While use and selection of CWD for rodent foraging, travel, and nesting, which can impact an individual’s fitness, has been demonstrated across numerous studies, the role of CWD presence and abundance in rodent population and community dynamics varies across studies. To better understand rodent and CWD relationships, we studied rodent populations across two periods of CWD manipulation in randomly assigned experimental treatments in South Carolina (Period I: March 1996–November 2000; removal of all snags and fallen logs, removal of fallen logs only, and Control, and Period II: January 2002–September 2006; downed woody debris addition, snag addition, and Control). Overall, we found minimal effects of experimental treatments on the rodent community composition and structure, and community level variation was mainly explained by cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus) and southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) captures. There were no experimental treatment effects on captures of cotton mice and southern flying squirrels, but we observed variation across seasons and years. Our study shows that over the long-term, rodent population and community dynamics are not affected by experimental manipulations of CWD in our study area.

Early successional habitat (ESH) is important for many wildlife species. Over the past century, land use changes have caused ESH to decline in hardwood forests of the eastern United States. Because of the decline of ESH and ESH dependent wildlife, ESH has recently received increased attention from land managers and scientists. Bats, which utilize ESH for foraging, are also a conservation concern, however little information is available on how ESH restoration affects bats. Our objective was to determine how ESH opening size, presence of edge, opening shape, prey abundance, vegetation structure, and environmental factors affect bat activity. In June-August 2014 and May-August 2015, we placed Anabat SD2 bat detectors at the interior and edge of small (0.2–1.6 ha), medium (2.1–5.6 ha), and large (6.2–18.5 ha) forest openings in the Nantahala National Forest, Cheoah Ranger District, Graham County, North Carolina. We used Townes-style Malaise insect traps to determine insect abundance and quantified vegetation structure. Differences in insect abundance, bat activity, and bat species richness were tested using mixed effects general linear models. Opening size and presence of edge did not affect total insect abundance, although density of trees >2 m in height and elevation had a negative effect on total insect abundance whereas mean nightly temperature had a positive effect. Similarly, overall bat activity did not vary with opening size or presence of edge, but was negatively related to density of trees >2 m high and elevation and positively related to the related circumscribing circle index (i.e., more elongated) and mean nightly temperature. Activity of open-adapted bat species was also negatively related to density of trees >2 m. These results suggest that opening size and prey abundance do not affect bat activity in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Open-adapted bats may select foraging patches with less vegetation structure because they can forage more efficiently in these environments, whereas clutter-adapted bats can forage efficiently in both cluttered and open environments. Thus, if creating ESH to benefit bats, land managers should maintain an open vegetation structure, focus on creating openings at lower elevations, and configure openings to maximize edge relative to opening area.

Myotis septentrionalis (Northern Long-eared Bat) is a federally threatened insectivorous bat facing devastating population declines due to white-nose syndrome (WNS). Our study provides pre-WNS (2009) capture rates and roosting-behavior data for Northern Long-eared Bats in the southern Appalachians. We conducted mist-net surveys at 37 sites and radio-tracked female Northern Long-eared Bats to their day roosts in eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. We compared tree and plot characteristics for roosts and corresponding random trees using Wilcoxon rank-sum tests. Our 43 survey nights yielded 302 bats of 11 species; Northern Long-eared Bats were the most commonly captured species (n = 97). We located 14 unique roosts for 7 radio-tracked bats; Pinus strobus (White Pine) snags (n = 8) were the most common roost sites. We observed a colony of 72 bats using a White Pine snag as a maternity roost. Roost trees were significantly larger in diameter and had more solar exposure above the roost and wi...

Large numbers of migratory bats are killed every year at wind energy facilities. However, population-level impacts are unknown as we lack basic demographic information about these species. We investigated whether fatalities at wind turbines could impact population viability of migratory bats, focusing on the hoary bat ( Lasiurus cinereus ), the species most frequently killed by turbines in North America. Using expert elicitation and population projection models, we show that mortality from wind turbines may drastically reduce population size and increase the risk of extinction. For example, the hoary bat population could decline by as much as 90% in the next 50 years if the initial population size is near 2.5 million bats and annual population growth rate is similar to rates estimated for other bat species (λ = 1.01). Our results suggest that wind energy development may pose a substantial threat to migratory bats in North America. If viable populations are to be sustained, conservation measures to reduce mortality from turbine collisions likely need to be initiated soon. Our findings inform policy decisions regarding preventing or mitigating impacts of energy infrastructure development on wildlife.

The Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), a species that is federally endangered in the U.S., is being impacted by white-nose syndrome and habitat loss across much of its range. A better understanding of summer roost ecology of the species will enable us to develop management strategies that promote summer survival for breeding adult females and their pups. We conducted a 5 year investigation of Indiana bat roost habitat selection and roosting behavior in a large (>250,000 ha) forested area of the southern Appalachian Mountains and compared our results to populations in different landscapes across the species’ range. From May to August 2008–2012, we attached radio transmitters to 50 adult females, 3 juveniles, and 7 adult males captured at sites on the Cherokee and Nantahala national forests and Great Smoky Mountains National Park. We radiotracked bats to 95 roosts and measured characteristics of trees, 0.1 ha plots, and landscape attributes for 69 of these roosts and associated random trees. We used an AIC approach to compare 14 candidate conditional logistic regression models. The only plausible model, which carried 95% of total model weights, had 3 important terms. Indiana bats showed strong selection for yellow pine (Pinus subgenus Diploxylon) snags that were significantly taller than random trees and in areas with a greater number of snags within 0.1 ha. During this study, tree and stand structure were more important for roost selection than larger scale factors and Indiana bats responded to a pulsed and highly ephemeral resource, dead yellow pines, which were a significant component of the large forest tracts. Roosting behavior differed from what has been observed for Indiana bats in other parts of the eastern U.S.; maternity colonies tended to be smaller (

Although habitat loss and degradation are major contributors to species declines, some species are able to adapt to changes in land use by selecting different habitats or structures in disturbed areas than they do in more pristine habitats. Bats are particularly vulnerable to changes in land use due to their dependence on specific habitat types and structures. The objective of this study was to determine how selection and use of roost trees, and niche breadth of Rafinesque's big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) varied with land-use history. I examined use and selection of roosts at 3 bottomland hardwood sites that varied in amount and time since timber harvest. Fortynine transects were established as a means of searching for bats in trees with basal cavity openings and were surveyed 2–9 times. Bats at the most-disturbed sites exhibited the broadest niches, using a greater number of tree species and habitat types, although bats at the least-disturbed site used a broader range of cavity volumes. Cavity characteristics were the primary factors governing roost selection by Rafinesque's big-eared bats, but selection varied among sites. Probability of use increased with increasing cavity volume for bats at all sites, but bats at the most-disturbed site primarily used trees in the smallest cavity volume class, whereas bats at the least-disturbed site primarily used trees in the largest cavity volume class. Results of this study suggest that Rafinesque's bigeared bats can adapt to a range of habitat conditions if trees with large cavities are available. However, future studies need to determine the long-term viability of this species in disturbed habitats.

Many factors, including microphone type, affect the quality of acoustic calls recorded by bat detectors and detection probabilities of individual species. Because omnidirectional microphones tend to have a shorter range and record more noise than directional microphones, it has been suggested that these microphones be set farther from reflecting surfaces. Our objective was to determine the effects of microphone height (1.5, 5, and 9 m), distance from forest edge (1, 3, and 5 m), and survey timing on the number of bat files recorded, quality of recorded files, the proportion of identifiable files, and the probability of detecting individual species. We deployed 3×3 arrays of two types of bat detectors with omnidirectional microphones at two sites in Kentucky during two survey periods. We found little evidence for effects of microphone height or distance from forest edge on call quality or detection probabilities of any species. In contrast, survey period significantly affected the number of files recorded, the proportion of high-quality files, the proportion of identifiable files, and the probability of detecting individual species; the length of the recording session also significantly affected the probability of detecting some species. Thus, it appears that biologists have some latitude when placing detectors with omnidirectional microphones on the landscape but timing of surveys should be considered when designing and analyzing bat acoustic survey and monitoring studies.

Although several studies have described roost use by Rafinesque's big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii), few studies have examined roost selection. We examined roost use and selection by Rafinesque's big-eared bat at the tree, stand, and landscape scales during the maternity season in pristine old-growth habitat in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. We located 43 roosts (14 maternity, 29 solitary) through cavity searches and radio-telemetry. Maternity colonies and solitary individuals selected roosts based on similar characteristics. The best model explaining roost selection by all bats included tree and stand characteristics; landscape factors had little influence on roost use. Bats selected large diameter trees in areas with a high density of trees with cavities in the surrounding area. Most roosts (67.4%) were in water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) in semi-permanently flooded and saturated areas. Half of maternity roost cavities had upper bole openings whereas only 25.8% of solitary roosts had upper bo...

The degree of spatial complexity in the environment, or clutter, affects the quality of foraging habitats for bats and their detection with acoustic systems. Clutter has been assessed in a variety of ways but there are no standardized methods for measuring clutter. We compared four methods (Visual Clutter, Cluster, Single Variable, and Clutter Index) and related these to the probability of detecting bat calls. From June to July, 2005–2006, we used Anabat detectors to conduct acoustic surveys for 2–4 nights at each of 71 points representing three visual clutter classes. We used a cluster analysis to identify groups of plots with similar characteristics. We used backwards stepwise discriminant analyses to identify important plot structure variables that differentiated among clutter classes and used discriminant analyses to test the effectiveness of the plot structure variables in classifying plots into visual clutter classes or clusters. Two clutter volume indices (Indexmax and Index15m) were computed for each plot by calculating the ratio of vegetation volume to available space in the plot. We assessed the effects of the clutter estimation methods on the probability of detecting bats in low and high frequency phonic groups. Occupancy rates ranged from 0.30 to 0.78 and probability of detecting any bat was ⩾0.78 for each period; however, few identifiable calls were recorded. Live tree basal area, midstory live stem count, and canopy crown volume were the most effective measures of clutter for bats because each was a plausible predictor of bat detection and the former two were important for discriminating among plots with differing structure. The use of clutter indices has promise but such methods need to be tested prior to implementation. In future studies of bat foraging habitat, quantitative measures should be used to assess clutter so it is possible to make comparisons among habitats or studies.

As technology has evolved, bat researchers have relied more heavily on using acoustic techniques to collect data on bat communities. Acoustic data can be collected actively, where the researcher is present at the sampling point and follows the bat with the detector, or passively, where the researcher is not present and the detector is set out by itself. Active sampling can yield longer, clearer calls, and is only conducted during part of the night (usually from sunset to about 02:00 hours) for short bouts (20 minutes). By contrast, passive sampling can yield lower quality calls, but procedures are easily repeatable and data can be used to measure temporal variation in activity throughout the night and detect individuals and species that are missed during active sampling. Researchers are increasingly attempting to monitor and compare bat communities over time, including sites where both active and passive sampling have occurred. However, these two techniques can yield different detection probabilities and the extent to which data collected using these two techniques can be compared is unclear. Thus, in July 2017 we simultaneously collected acoustic data actively and passively to compare detection probabilities of bats at the Savannah River Site, South Carolina, USA. Using Anabat Express detectors, we detected five species or species groups (Eptesicus fuscus/Lasiurus cinereus, L. borealis/L. seminolus, Perimyotis subflavus, Myotis austroriparius, and Nycticeius humeralis) using each method. Using single season occupancy modeling, we found that method (passive vs. active sampling) had a significant effect on detection probabilities of all species, and that passively sampling throughout the night yielded the highest detection probability for all species. As a result, if differences in detection probability are not taken into account, comparison of historical active datasets with current passive datasets could lead to different insights into habitat use by similar bat communities. Based on our findings, we recommend that researchers use passive sampling throughout the night when studying and monitoring bat communities.

Little is known about the ecological relationships of bats of Southcentral Alaska. We used AnaBat II bat detectors, mist-netting, and radio-telemetry to collect preliminary data on the distribution and status of bats on the Chugach National Forest (CNF), their activity patterns, and their roosting and foraging habitats. Myotis spp. were detected at 20 of 25 acoustic sampling sites. Bat activity tended to be higher at water sites than at road or trail sites, and higher in hardwood stands than in conifer stands, although these differences were not statistically significant. Based on data recorded at a maternity roost, the total activity period for bats during July was approximately 5 h per night; no bat activity was observed prior to sunset or after sunrise at any of the sites. Hourly activity was not related to temperature, but activity ended earlier on cooler nights. An adult male Little Brown Myotis (Myotis lucifugus) was tracked to a day-roost in a large Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) snag wit...

Riparian zones are important to bats, which use them for foraging, roosting, and drinking. To predict effects of timber harvests in riparian areas on bats, more information is needed on the functional width of riparian zones for bats, and how bats respond to forest removal near small perennial streams. From May to August (2004–2007), we studied bat presence and activity in 1 unharvested site and 3 harvested sites with different riparian-buffer sizes (0 m, 10 m, and 30 m) in the southern Appalachian Mountains of the United States. We measured activity at 3 distances from the stream in each site (0 m, stream; 23 m, mid; and 46 m, far), classified bat calls by phonic group, and tested the effect of harvest on overall activity, detection, and naive occupancy rates for 4 phonic groups. Pre-harvest activity was higher at the far versus stream or mid positions. Position, harvest, and interactions affected post-harvest change in activity in the treatment sites. Pre- and post-harvest activity was similar at all positions in the 30-m site. Activity increased significantly in the 0-m and 10-m sites, likely due to the presence of edge after harvest. Detection probabilities were higher post-harvest for larger bats and occupancy of 0-m and 10-m sites was higher post-harvest for all phonic groups except Myotis. Post-harvest responses suggest that the functional width of riparian zones in our study area is ≥10 m. This study is the first to test the effects of harvesting on use of riparian forests by bats; further long-term landscape-scale studies are needed. © 2013 The Wildlife Society.

Understanding seasonal movements of bats is important for effective conservation efforts. Although female Indiana bats ( Myotis sodalis Miller and Allen, 1928) have been documented to migrate >500 km, knowledge of their migratory patterns is still extremely limited. We used the relationship between latitude and stable hydrogen isotope ratio in bat hair (δ2Hhair) to estimate the north–south extent of the summer range (catchment area) of bats hibernating in 14 Indiana bat hibernacula in eight states throughout its range. Range of δ2Hhair values varied substantially among hibernacula, suggesting large differences among sites in the north–south distance travelled by bats between summer and winter habitats. In particular, hibernacula in the southern portion of the range had greater catchment areas than those in the central and northern portions of the range. Variability in movement distances among sites was not associated with the number of hair samples analyzed or colony size. Significant year-to-year variation (2007–2008 to 2008–2009) in the distribution of δ2Hhair for two sites in Tennessee was observed. Currently, hibernacula considered important for species conservation are largely determined by population size, but our results suggest that migratory diversity should also be considered.

Southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) can have significant negative impacts on red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) reproductive success and group size. Although direct control of southern flying squirrels may be necessary in small red-cockaded woodpecker populations (

Anti-predator behavior can affect prey growth, reproduction, survival, and generate emergent effects in food webs. Small mammals often lower the cost of predation by altering their behavior in response to shrubs, but the importance of other microhabitat features, such as downed woody debris, for anti-predator behavior is unknown. We used givingup densities to quantify the degree to which downed woody debris alters perceived predation risk by small mammals in southeastern pine forests. We placed 14 foraging trays next to large downed woody debris, shrubs, and in open areas for 12 consecutive nights. Moon illumination, a common indicator of predation risk, led to a similar reduction in small mammal foraging in all three microhabitats (open, downed woody debris, and shrub). Small mammals perceived open microhabitats as riskier than shrub microhabitats, with downed woody debris habitats perceived as being of intermediate risk between shrub and open microhabitats. Despite the presumed benefits of the protective cover of downed woody debris, small mammals may perceive downed woody debris as a relatively risky foraging site in southeastern pine forests where the high diversity and abundance of rodent-eating snakes may provide a primary predatory threat.

Bats respond to the calls of conspecifics as well as to calls of other species; however, few studies have attempted to quantify these responses or understand the functions of these calls. We tested the response of Rafinesque’s big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) to social calls as a possible method to increase capture success and to understand the function of social calls. We also tested if calls of bats within the range of the previously designated subspecies differed, if the responses of Rafinesque’s big-eared bats varied with geographic origin of the calls, and if other species responded to the calls of C. rafinesquii. We recorded calls of Rafinesque’s big-eared bats at two colony roost sites in South Carolina, USA. Calls were recorded while bats were in the roosts and as they exited. Playback sequences for each site were created by copying typical pulses into the playback file. Two mist nets were placed approximately 50–500 m from known roost sites; the net with the playback equipment served as the Experimental net and the one without the equipment served as the Control net. Call structures differed significantly between the Mountain and Coastal Plains populations with calls from the Mountains being of higher frequency and longer duration. Ten of 11 Rafinesque’s big-eared bats were caught in the Control nets and, 13 of 19 bats of other species were captured at Experimental nets even though overall bat activity did not differ significantly between Control and Experimental nets. Our results suggest that Rafinesque’s big-eared bats are not attracted to conspecifics’ calls and that these calls may act as an intraspecific spacing mechanism during foraging.

Habitat loss, wind energy development, and the disease white-nose syndrome are major threats contributing to declines in bat populations in North America. In the southeastern US in particular, the recent arrival of white-nose syndrome and changes in landscape composition and configuration have driven shifts in bat species populations and distributions. Effective management strategies which address these large-scale, community-level threats require landscape-scale analyses. Our objective was to model the relationship between ecoregional and landscape factors and occupancy by all bat species in South Carolina, USA, during summer. We conducted acoustic surveys from mid-May through July 2015 and 2016 and evaluated temporally dynamic occupancy models for eight bat species or species groups at the 100 km2 level. We found significant effects of landscape factors such as ecoregion and forest edge density for three species, but habitat condition effects were not statistically significant for five other species. Thus, for some species, site-use analyses may be more appropriate than larger scale occupancy analyses. However, our occupancy predictions generally matched statewide historical distributions for all species, suggesting our approach could be useful for monitoring landscape-level trends in bat species. Thus, while our scale of study was likely too coarse for assessing fine-scale habitat associations for all bat species, our findings can improve future monitoring efforts, inform conservation priorities, and guide subsequent landscape-scale studies for bat species and community-level responses to global change.

Ultrasonic detectors are powerful tools for the study of bat ecology. Many options are available for deploying acoustic detectors including various weatherproofing designs and microphone orientations, but the impacts of these options on the quantity and quality of the bat calls that are recorded are unknown. We compared the impacts of three microphone orientations (horizontal, 45°, and vertical) and two weatherproofing designs (polyvinyl chloride tubes and the BatHat) on the number of calls detected, call quality, and species detected by the Anabat II bat detector system at 17 sites in central Kentucky in May and June 2008. Detectors with BatHat weatherproofing recorded significantly fewer call sequences, pulses per file, species per site, and lower quality calls. Detectors in the horizontal position also tended to record fewer files, fewer species, and lower quality calls. These results illustrate potential impacts of deployment method on quality and quantity of data obtained. Because weatherproofing and orientation impacted the quality and quantity of data recorded, comparison of results using different methodologies should be made with caution.

Stable hydrogen isotopes (dDs) in metabolically inert tissues such as feathers and hair provide a set of endogenous markers that may be useful for establishing migratory connectivity in animals. We tested the assumption of a clear relationship between dD values of growing-season–weighted average precipitation (dDp) derived from 2 geographic information system (GIS) models or latitude (LAT) and dD values in bat hair (dDh), and examined intra- and interspecific variation in dDh of 4 bat species in the eastern United States. We analyzed 251 hair samples from 1 long-distance migrant (eastern red bat [Lasiurus borealis]) and 3 regional migrants (Indiana bat [Myotis sodalis], northern long-eared bat [M. septentrionalis], and little brown bat [M. lucifugus]) captured during the reproductive period (pregnancy and lactation) when bats are resident. LAT explained more of the variation in dDh than dDp derived from either of the GIS-based models, although 1 model of dDp performed better for some species. We found significant intraspecific differences in the relationships between dDh and LAT and between dDh and estimates of dDp derived from Bowen et al. (dDpB) for L. borealis, and significant variation in the regression equations of dDh and LAT and dDh and dDp among species for adult females and adult males. Stable hydrogen isotope analysis may be a valuable tool for studying migratory connectivity in bats, but significant intra- and interspecific variatio ni ndDh values suggests that pooling across sex and age categories and use of surrogate species should be avoided.

A 5-year study of long-term (40 years) study plots was conducted on the Osceola National Forest in northern Florida to determine how dormant-season fire frequency (annual, biennial, quadrennial, or unburned) affects ground-dwelling macroarthropod use of coarse woody debris in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) forests. Pitfall traps were used to sample arthropods near logs or metal drift fences of equal length. Samples were identified to genus or the lowest practical taxonomic level. Overall, significantly more arthropods and more arthropod biomass were captured near drift fences than near logs. Similarity of arthropods captured near logs or drift fences ranged from 64.4% in annually burned plots to 69.2% in quadrennially burned plots, with no significant differences noted. Likewise, Shannon diversity, evenness, richness, and number of rare genera were the same for traps regardless of the trap location. Interaction between fires and trap location were observed in 31 of 932 arthropod taxa. Of t...

Although roost sites are critically important to bats, we have few data on macrohabitat factors that affect roost selection by foliage-roosting bats. Such data are needed so that forest managers can make informed decisions regarding conservation of bat roosts. Our objective was to examine roost selection by nonreproductive eastern pipistrelles (Perimyotis subflavus) and red bats (Lasiurus borealis) in a dense deciduous forest undergoing low-intensity timber management in the southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina, USA. During May to August 2004–2006, we radiotracked eight red bats and seven pipistrelles to roosts for 1–14 days (red bats, ¯ x ¼ 4:11 days, n = 19 roosts; pipistrelles, ¯ x ¼ 7 days, n = 15 roosts). We compared roost and random trees or points using paired-sample t-tests for tree and microhabitat characters and logistic regression models of one to three variables for macrohabitat characters. Neither red bats nor pipistrelles selected roosts based on tree or microhabitat characteristics. Red bats used a wide range of stand ages and conditions and, based on our most plausible models for macrohabitat variables, roosted closer than expected ð ¯ x ¼ 70: 6m Þ to linear openings such as gated roads.

Urbanization and development are predicted to increase considerably in the United States over the next several decades, and this is expected to result in large-scale habitat loss, fragmentation and loss of wildlife species. Thus, natural parks and preserves are becomingly increasingly important in the conservation of regional biodiversity. We used mist-nets and AnabatII acoustic detectors to survey bats in 10 national parks in the southeastern U.S. and examined the relationship between bat community structure and development in the surrounding 5 km. We predicted that species richness would increase with park size and that species richness and evenness would decrease with development. Species richness was not related to development or any other landscape characteristics including park size. In contrast, species evenness declined with increasing development. Percent Developed land in the surrounding 5 km area was the only variable that entered into the stepwise regression model. The decrease in species evenness in the urban parks was due to the dominance of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) in these parks. The percentage of big brown bats in our captures was positively related to percent Developed land in the surrounding area. Our data suggest that urban parks may be important for conserving regional bat biodiversity. However, the low species evenness in these parks suggests that some bat species may be susceptible to the effects of urbanization and may be extirpated over time. Thus, management of urban as well as rural parks should strive to conserve as much bat roosting and foraging habitat as possible.

Rafinesque's big-eared bats (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) use bridges as day roosts in parts of their range, but information on bridge use across their range is lacking. From May to Aug. 2002 we surveyed 1129 bridges (12.5%) within all 46 counties of South Carolina to determine use and selection of bridges as day roosts by big-eared bats and to document their distribution across the state. During summer 2003, we visited 235 bridges in previously occupied areas of the state to evaluate short-term fidelity to bridge roosts. We found colonies and solitary big-eared bats beneath 38 bridges in 2002 and 54 bridges in 2003. Construction type and size of bridges strongly influenced use in both years; bats selected large, concrete girder bridges and avoided flat-bottomed slab bridges. The majority of occupied bridges (94.7%) were in the Upper and Lower Coastal Plains, but a few bridges (5.3%) were located in the Piedmont. Rafinesque's big-eared bats were absent beneath bridges in the Blue Ridge Mountains. We...

Forest managers often use thinning and prescribed burning to reduce the risk of wildfire and insect outbreaks. Because thinning and burning alter the structure of forest stands and may affect insect prey abundance, they may change the suitability of stands for bats. Our objective was to test the effects of thinning and burning on bat foraging and commuting activity in pine stands in the Clemson Experimental Forest in the Piedmont of South Carolina. We also tested whether vertical use of stands varied with treatment and whether activity of three common species varied among treatments. Twelve stands in the Clemson Experimental Forest dominated by loblolly (Pinus taeda) and shortleaf (P. echinata) pine and at least 14 ha in size were selected and three replicates of four treatments were installed. The treatments were: (1) prescribed burning (Burn), (2) thinning to 18 m2/ha (Thin), (3) thinning to 18 m2/ha followed by prescribed burning (ThinB activity in the Burn and Thin&Burn stands was intermediate. Activity was also greater in treated stands than in the Control stands in 2002, but the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.08). In both years we recorded significantly more calls at 9 m than at 0.5 m above ground but the treatments did not affect vertical use of the stands. Activity of big brown bats and red bats was significantly higher in Thin stands than in Control or Burn stands, whereas activity of pipistrelles did not vary among treatments. Our results suggest that treatments that reduce clutter, particularly thinning, increase the suitability of pine stands for bats’ foraging and commuting activity in the Piedmont region. Thus, use of these practices may help to preserve the biodiversity of managed pine forests in the South.

Knowledge and understanding of bat habitat associations and the responses of bats to forest management are critical for effective bat conservation and management. Few studies have been conducted on bat habitat use in the southeast, despite the high number of endangered and sensitive species in the region. Our objective was to identify important local, stand, and landscape factors influencing bat habitat use in northwestern South Carolina, USA. We hypothesized that use would be greatest 1) at points with relatively sparse vegetation, 2) in early successional and mature stands, and 3) at points close to streams. We also predicted that species would exhibit different patterns of habitat use based on morphology. We placed Anabat II bat detectors at points located in 3 forest types and 3 age classes to record bats from May–August 2004 and 2005. We used an information theoretic approach to determine the variables that best predicted use by bats. Vegetation density at the sample point was the best predictor of overall bat presence in 2004. In 2005 vegetation density and distance to the closest road were the best predictors of overall bat use; the model containing age class also had good support. Bats were more likely to be recorded at points with sparse vegetation, farther from roads, and in early successional stands. Vegetation density was also the best predictor of habitat use by big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) and red bats (Lasiurus borealis); both species were far more likely to be recorded at points with sparse vegetation at the sample point. Eastern pipistrelles (Pipistrellus subflavus) were also more likely to be recorded at points with sparse vegetation and in early successional stands. The best predictors of northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) habitat use were vegetation density and age class. Northern long-eared bats were more likely to be recorded at points with sparse vegetation and in mature stands. Our results suggest that early successional habitats and small openings and gaps within forest stands provide suitable commuting and foraging bat habitat in northwestern South Carolina. However, mature forests are also important for some species. Forest management practices that provide a variety of age classes across the landscape and that create gaps and openings within mid- and late-successional stands will likely provide suitable habitat for bats in the mountains of South Carolina.

It is commonly assumed that population estimates derived from trapping small mammals are accurate and unbiased or that estimates derived from different capture methods are comparable. We captured southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) using two methods to study their effect on red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) reproductive success. Southern flying squirrels were captured at and removed from 30 red-cockaded woodpecker cluster sites during March to July 1994 and 1995 using Sherman traps placed in a grid encompassing a red-cockaded woodpecker nest tree and by hand from red-cockaded woodpecker cavities. Totals of 195 (1994) and 190 (1995) red-cockaded woodpecker cavities were examined at least three times each year. Trappability of southern flying squirrels in Sherman traps was significantly greater in 1995 (1.18%; 22,384 trap nights) than in 1994 (0.42%; 20,384 trap nights), and capture rate of southern flying squirrels in cavities was significantly greater in 1994 (22.7%; 502 cavity inspections) than in 1995 (10.8%; 555 cavity inspections). However, more southern flying squirrels were captured per cavity inspection than per Sherman trap night in both years. Male southern flying squirrels were more likely to be captured from cavities than in Sherman traps in 1994, but not in 1995. Both male and female juveniles were more likely to be captured in cavities than in traps in both years. In 1994 males in reproductive condition were more likely to be captured in cavities than in traps and in 1995 we captured significantly more reproductive females in cavities than in traps. Our data suggest that population estimates based solely on one trapping method may not represent true population size or structure of southern flying squirrels.

Southeastern fox squirrels were observed feeding preferentially on seeds of certain clones of loblolly pine in a central Georgia seed orchard in the early 1990s and, similarly, on slash pine seed in an orchard in central Florida in the late 1990s. In each orchard, the degree of feeding preference and avoidance among selected clones was documented and quantified. We tested three hypotheses to explain this phenomenon: (1) seeds of preferred clones have greater nutritional quality or energy content; (2) cone armature differed between preferred and avoided clones; or (3) preferred clones have lower quantities of deterrent compounds present in cone tissue. Hypothesis 1 was tested using cones collected from three preferred and two avoided clones within a loblolly pine seed orchard. We found no consistent differences in total number of seeds per cone, viable seeds per cone, seed weight per cone, average weight per seed, energy content per seed, and energy content per cone between preferred and avoided cones. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were tested using cones collected from four preferred and four avoided clones within a slash pine seed orchard. We found a strong positive association between spine length and cone avoidance. Avoided cones had significantly higher concentrations of myrcene, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, β-caryophyllene, and α-humulene but lower concentrations of α-pinene. These physical and chemical cone defenses may increase handling time or reduce seed palatability and therefore act as significant deterrents to seed predation by fox squirrels when preferred feeding options are readily available, such as in a seed orchard.

We characterized Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) roosting habitat at three maternity colony sites in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Using radio telemetry, we tracked six bats a total of 40 bat days (range 4–9 days/bat). In 1999, we located a primary roost in an eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) snag (109 cm DBH) in the Nantahala National Forest, NC. In 2000, we located a primary roost in a pine (Pinus sp.) snag (39 cm DBH) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP), TN. Another primary roost was found in a pitch pine snag (P. rigida; 55 cm DBH) in GSMNP in 2001. Largest exit counts for the three colonies were 28, 23, and 81 bats. Primary roost sites were exposed to direct sunlight during most of the day. We also located six alternate roost trees: three pine snags, two red oak (Quercus rubra) snags, and one live sweet birch (Betula lenta). All three primary roosts located in this study were not used during subsequent summers. The eastern hemlock used in 1999 was still standing as ...

The purpose of the North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) is to create a continent-wide program to monitor bats at local to rangewide scales that will provide reliable data to promote effective conservation decisionmaking and the long-term viability of bat populations across the continent. This is an international, multiagency program. Four approaches will be used to gather monitoring data to assess changes in bat distributions and abundances: winter hibernaculum counts, maternity colony counts, mobile acoustic surveys along road transects, and acoustic surveys at stationary points. These monitoring approaches are described along with methods for identifying species recorded by acoustic detectors. Other chapters describe the sampling design, the database management system (Bat Population Database), and statistical approaches that can be used to analyze data collected through this program.

Sporocarps of hypogeous mycorrhizal fungi (truffles) are the major food of northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus). The two subspecies of northern flying squirrels that occur in the southern Appalachians, G. s. coloratus and G. s. fuscus, are endangered species which are primarily found in the ecotone between high-elevation spruce-fir and northern hardwood forests. Our objective was to determine the microhabitat and macrohabitat characteristics associated with the presence and abundance of truffles in suitable habitat for northern flying squirrels. We sampled for truffles in 24–26, 1-m2 plots on each of 10 northern flying squirrel sites in North Carolina and measured micro- and macrohabitat characteristics associated with sample plots and sites. Elaphomyces granulatus was the most common species of truffle found (78.7%). Red spruce (Picea rubra) was significantly more likely to be one of the three closest trees to plots with truffles. Further, spruce was the most important species in plots...

We conducted a 2-yr study of the nestling diet of Red-cockaded Woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) at three locations to determine how it varied among sites. We photographed 5939 nest visits by adult woodpeckers delivering food items for nestlings. In 1994, we located cameras near three nest cavities on the Lower Coastal Plain of South Carolina and near two cavities at the Savannah River Site, which is on the Upper Coastal Plain. In 1995, cameras were installed on the Savannah River Site and in the Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia. The cameras recorded adults bringing 33 different types of food to nestlings. Wood roaches (Blattoidea: Blattellidae, Parcoblatta spp.) were the most common food composing 50% of the diet overall. They were also the most common prey at each location and for all but one of the woodpecker groups studied. Wood roaches were recorded in 26% of the visits photographed on the Lower Coastal Plain and 62% of the nest visits on the Upper Coastal Plain in 1994. In 1995, woo...

Anecdotal data gathered from many populations suggest that southern flying squirrel (SFS, Glaucomys volans ) use of the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker's (RCW, Picoides borealis ) nest and roost cavities may negatively affect RCW populations. We conducted a controlled experiment to determine the effects of SFSs on RCW reproductive success. During the 1994 and 1995 breeding seasons, SFSs were removed from 30 RCW clusters and 32 clusters served as controls. SFSs were the most frequently encountered occupants of RCW cavities and used 20–33% of RCW cavities in control and treatment clusters over both years. Treatment groups produced significantly more successful nests (≥ 1 fledgling) than control groups in 1994. In 1995 however, there was no difference in the number of successful nests. In both years, RCW groups nesting in treatment clusters produced significantly more fledglings than groups in control clusters in each of four experimental areas, averaging approximately 0.7 additional fledglings per nesting group. Loss of entire clutches or broods, possibly as a result of predation or abandonment, was a major factor limiting reproduction in control groups in 1994. In contrast, differences in partial brood loss appeared to be the cause of differential fledging success in 1995. Usurpation of RCW roost cavities by SFSs may have placed greater energetic demands on RCWs for cavity defence or thermoregulation, thus reducing energy available for reproduction. Our results show that SFS use of RCW cavities during the breeding season has a significant impact on RCWs and that management of RCW populations should include activities that either minimize SFS populations in RCW clusters or limit access of SFSs to RCW cavities.

The importance of coarse woody debris (CWD) to small mammals in a managed pine forest in South Carolina was tested experimentally during summer and autumn 1990 and winter and spring 1991–1994. Abundance and demographics of small mammals were compared between plots with abundant CWD created by a tornado (unsalvaged plots) and plots where tornado-created CWD had been removed (salvaged plots). Species composition was similar between unsalvaged and salvaged plots, but more small mammals were captured on unsalvaged plots. Cotton mice ( Peromyscus gossypinus ) were the most abundant species captured in all plots and were significantly more abundant in unsalvaged plots in every trapping period. Adult female P. gossypinus in unsalvaged plots had greater survival and were more likely to be in reproductive condition than adult females in salvaged plots. Southern short-tailed shrews ( Blarina carolinensis ) and cotton rats ( Sigmodon hispidas ) tended to be more abundant in unsalvaged plots. Fox squirrels ( Sciurus niger ), the second most abundant species in salvaged plots, were never captured on unsalvaged plots. Large amounts of CWD improve habitat quality of pine forests for P. gossypinus , and CWD is probably an important habitat component for other species.

This paper examines the concepts of ecology, ecosystems, and ecosystem management and then further examines the role of fish, wildlife, and plant ecology research in ecosystem management, past, present, and future. It is often assumed that research in support of ecosystem management will entail comprehensive studies of entire ecosystems whereas research programs that focus on one species do not constitute ecosystem management level research. The supposed dichotomy between single species and ecosystem level approaches has been the focus of considerable debate. However, this is a false dichotomy and ecosystem studies and single-species studies simply represent two ends of a spectrum of approaches for understanding ecological processes. Given that the level of scientific investigation (e.g., individual species, community, or ecosystem) does not differentiate ecosystem management research from more traditional approaches, what are the distinguishing features? Ecosystem management research is broader in scope than more traditional ecological studies. A greater emphasis is also placed on integrating results of various studies and programs to understand larger scale interactions and the structure and function of ecosystems. Model building also plays a greater role in ecosystem management research efforts as a means of not only understanding ecosystem processes but also as a means of generating hypotheses. Although the primary responsibilities of research and management are different, there is much room for interaction and integration of functions. Consequently, adaptive management has become an important part of ecosystem management and will likely become a larger part of basic research programs. However, adaptive management experiments should not be the endpoint. Instead, results from adaptive management studies should be used to generate hypotheses that can be tested with more traditional and rigorous scientific methods. As managers begin to deal at larger spatial and longer temporal scales changes in the end-products of research will be necessary. The task of assessing present as well as future conditions will greatly increase the need for user-friendly analytical tools (e.g., simulation models) that allow managers to visualize conditions on a large scale. A balance of adaptive management and traditional experimental designs will ultimately lead to better models of management.