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Global warming and over-enrichment of freshwater systems have led to an increase in harmful cyanobacterial blooms (cyanoHABs), affecting human and animal health. The aim of this systematic map was to detail the current literature surrounding cyanotoxin poisonings in terrestrial wildlife and identify possible improvements to reports of morbidity and mortality from cyanotoxins. A systematic search was conducted using the electronic databases Scopus and Web of Science, yielding 5059 published studies identifying 45 separate case reports of wildlife poisonings from North America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. Currently, no gold standard for the diagnosis of cyanotoxin intoxication exists for wildlife, and we present suggested guidelines here. These involved immunoassays and analytical chemistry techniques to identify the toxin involved, PCR to identify the cyanobacterial species involved, and evidence of ingestion or exposure to cyanotoxins in the animals affected. Of the 45 cases, our recommended methods concurred with 48.9% of cases. Most often, cases were investigated after a mortality event had already occurred, and where mitigation was implemented, only three cases were successful in their efforts. Notably, only one case of invasive cyanobacteria was recorded in this review despite invasive species being known to occur throughout the globe; this could explain the underreporting of invasive cyanobacteria. This systematic map highlights the perceived absence of robust detection, surveillance, and diagnosis of cyanotoxin poisoning in wildlife. It may be true that wildlife is less susceptible to these poisoning events; however, the true rates of poisoning are likely much more than is reported in the literature.

Haemorrhagic disease associated with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (Elephantid herpesvirus, EEHV) infections is the leading cause of death for Asian elephant (

Langurs are Asian primates belonging to the Colobinae subfamily. Langur populations are declining, with most species categorized as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Investigation into the threats to population viability and sustainability would be beneficial but there is limited literature available on common diseases or causes of death in these species, either in captive or free-ranging settings. This study aimed to evaluate the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in

Tigers (Panthera tigris spp.) are endangered in the wild; ensuring sustainable insurance populations requires careful planning within zoological collections. In captive situations, contraceptives are often used to control breeding and ensure genetically viable populations that contain manageable numbers of animals; reversible contraceptives are ideal because they offer flexibility for breeding management. Historically, synthetic progestins, such as melengestrol acetate implants, were used in female tigers, but these are associated with an increased risk of reproductive pathology and subsequent infertility. Recent management advice to ex-situ collections has been to transition to the use of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists, such as deslorelin acetate implants, which do not appear to have a similar risk of reproductive pathology but are associated with highly variable reversal times in exotic felids. Using data from 917 contraceptive records in female tigers captured by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums Reproductive Management Center and the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Reproductive Management Group's joint Contraception Database and from supplementary surveys, this study reviews the changing use of contraceptives in captive female tigers. The aim was to describe the historical and current use of contraceptives and provide a comprehensive assessment on the use of deslorelin implants, including data on product protocols, efficacy, pathology, and reversibility. This study determined that current dose, frequency, reversibility, and anatomical placement sites of deslorelin implants are highly variable, indicating that specific, readily available, unified, evidence-based recommendations on the use of deslorelin would be useful for future contraceptive use in managed tiger populations.

Haemorrhagic disease associated with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (Elephantid herpesvirus, EEHV) infections is the leading cause of death for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves. This study assessed the effect of captive herd management on EEHV shedding, as evidence of latent infection reactivation, focusing on: (1) the influence of social change on the odds of recrudescence; (2) the respective effects of between and within herd moves; and (3) characteristics of recrudescent viral shedding. Trunk and conjunctival swabs (n = 165) were obtained from six elephants at an EAZA-accredited zoo, collected during a period of social stability, and at times of social change. Longitudinal sampling took place at times of moving two bulls out of the collection and one new bull into an adjacent enclosure to the cow herd (between herd moves), and during a period of mixing this new bull with the cow herd to facilitate mating (within herd moves). Quantitative PCR was employed to detect EEHV 1a/b, 4a/b, and EF–1–α (housekeeping gene). Generalised estimating equations determined EEHV recrudescence odds ratios (OR) and relative viral DNA load. Sixteen EEHV 1a/b shedding events occurred, but no EEHV 4a/b was detected. All management-derived social changes promoted recrudescence (social change OR = 3.27, 95% CI = 0.412–26, p = 0.262; and between herd moves OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 0.178−14.4, p = 0.675), though within herd movements posed the most significant increase of EEHV reactivation odds (OR = 6.86, 95% CI = 0.823−57.1, p = 0.075) and demonstrated the strongest relative influence (post hoc Tukey test p = 0.0425). Shedding onset and magnitude ranged from six to 54 days and from 3.59 to 11.09 ΔCts. Differing challenges are associated with between and within herd movements, which can promote recrudescence and should be considered an exposure risk to naïve elephants.

Summary Tuberculosis (TB) is an important and widespread disease of wildlife, livestock and humans world-wide, but long-term empirical datasets describing this condition are rare. A population of meerkats (Suricata suricatta) in South Africa's Kalahari Desert have been diagnosed with Mycobacterium suricattae, a novel strain of TB, causing fatal disease in this group-living species. This study aimed to find characteristics associated with clinical TB in meerkats. These characteristics could subsequently be used to identify ‘at-risk’ animals within a population, and target these individuals for control measures. We conducted a retrospective study based on a unique, long-term life-history dataset of over 2000 individually identified animals covering a 14-year period after the first confirmatory diagnosis of TB in this population in 2001. Individual- and group-level risk factors were analysed using time-dependent Cox regression to examine their potential influence on the time to development of end-stage TB. Cases of disease involved 144 individuals in 27 of 73 social groups, across 12 of 14 years (an incidence rate of 3·78 cases/100 study years). At the individual level, increasing age had the greatest effect on risk of disease with a hazard ratio of 4·70 (95% CI: 1·92–11·53, P

Background Sensitive diagnostic tools are necessary for the detection of Mycobacterium suricattae infection in meerkats (Suricata suricatta) in order to more clearly understand the epidemiology of tuberculosis and the ecological consequences of the disease in this species. We therefore aimed to develop a cytokine release assay to measure antigen-specific cell-mediated immune responses of meerkats. Results Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were evaluated for the detection of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and IFN-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10) in meerkat plasma. An IP-10 ELISA was selected to measure the release of this cytokine in whole blood in response to Bovigam® PC-HP Stimulating Antigen, a commercial peptide pool of M. bovis antigens. Using this protocol, captive meerkats with no known M. suricattae exposure (n = 10) were tested and results were used to define a diagnostic cut off value (mean plus 2 standard deviations). This IP-10 release assay (IPRA) was then evaluated in free-living meerkats with known M. suricattae exposure, categorized as having either a low, moderate or high risk of infection with this pathogen. In each category, respectively, 24.7%, 27.3% and 82.4% of animals tested IPRA-positive. The odds of an animal testing positive was 14.0 times greater for animals with a high risk of M. suricattae infection compared to animals with a low risk. Conclusion These results support the use of this assay as a measure of M. suricattae exposure in meerkat populations. Ongoing longitudinal studies aim to evaluate the value of the IPRA as a diagnostic test of M. suricattae infection in individual animals. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0927-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Using geographical information system (GIS) analyses, we integrate archaeological and environmental data in order to examine the changing social landscape in a portion of the central Mesa Verde region between A.D. 1050 and 1290. We identify the largest and most persistent communities in this area and define their agricultural catchments. These catchments overlapped increasingly through time, creating a social landscape in which people competed increasingly for agricultural land. We quantify agricultural production in these community catchments by year and find that on average, productivity decreased through time. We use these results to evaluate how catchment overlap affected the productive potential of each community and whether the increased competition for land stimulated cooperation and/or conflict among communities.

The black mangrove, Avicennia germinans, occurs sympatric withSpartina alterniflora in coastal Louisiana. Zonation exists alongan elevational gradient with A. germinans dominant at higherelevation creekbanks and S. alterniflora at interior, lowerelevation sites with greater depth and duration of flooding.Establishment of A. germinans seedlings was examined in cagesthat excluded predators and limited horizontal, but not vertical,movement of propagules by the tides and showed that blackmangrove could readily establish in the Spartina zone. Survivalof A. germinans seedlings after one year in cages was notsignificantly different between the two zones, and seedlings weresignificantly taller in the Spartina zone. Thus, neitherinundation per se nor other abiotic factors alone could accountfor the absence of A. germinans in the interior marsh. Althoughpropagules were dispersed into both zones, a net removal ofuncaged propagules from plots in the Spartina zone (–1.3 ± 0.6m-2 d-1) compared to a net addition to plots in the Avicennia zone (+0.5 ± 0.4 m-2d-1) indicated that retention of propagulesdiffered between zones. Causes of mortality were decay (Spartina> Avicennia zone), desiccation (Avicennia > Spartina zone), andpredation (Spartina > Avicennia zone). Although few propaguleswere completely consumed by predators (snails and crabs), damageto the cotyledons promoted decay. The results suggest that tidalaction limits retention and settlement of A. germinans propagulesin the Spartina zone, and a combination of predator damage andfrequent flooding leads to rapid decay of propagules that strandthere.

Three vegetation zones were delineated in a mangal / salt marsh community at Bay Champagne, Louisiana — a zone dominated byAvicennia germinans adjacent to the bay, an inland zone dominated bySpartina alterniflora, and a transition zone between the two containing both species. Parallel transects that intersected each zone were established perpendicular to the shore of the bay and sampled to determine if these zones differed on the basis of soil texture, elevation, redox potential, and selected interstitial water variables. Redox potential and interstitial water sulfide, ammonium, P, Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, pH, and salinity were measured 5 times during the year to account for seasonal variation. Factor analysis identified five factors, accounting for 80.6% of the variation in the data. These factors were interpreted as representing seawater, sulfide, nitrogen/phosphorus, Eh, and copper variables. Factor scores in theAvicennia zone were significantly different than in the other zones for the salinity and sulfide factors, with higher salinity scores and lower sulfide scores. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant zone differences for most individual variables. TheAvicennia zone was characterized by the highest relative elevation and soil bulk density. Higher concentrations of ions associated with sea water, such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium, occurred in theAvicennia zone, which also caused interstitial water salinity to be higher in that zone. The transition andSpartina zones were more biochemically reduced than theAvicennia zone, as shown by lower redox potential measurements, higher sulfide concentrations, and higher sulfide factor scores in the former. Iron and manganese were lower in the more reduced zones, probably due to precipitation with sulfide. The transition andSpartina zones only differed in interstitial water potassium and sulfide and relative elevation, with some additional seasonal differences in other variables. TheSpartina zone had a lower elevation and usually higher sulfide concentrations than the transition zone. We hypothesize that the relatively high sulfide and lower elevation of theSpartina zone may limit the establishment ofAvicennia propagules there.

From the College’s earliest days, the Steering Committee had planned to encourage the development of overseas regional faculties in Australia, New Zealand and later on in South Africa, with their corresponding Overseas Regional Councils. As with the home faculties the Officers and Members of Faculty Boards are printed in the Annual Reports. The Foundation Council agreed that at least ten members of the College would be needed to form an overseas faculty and that the College Council should decide the area to be covered by each.

The use of magnesium sulphate in the treatment of cholera aestiva is not new, particularly in the rural districts. It is unnecessary to go into detail as to the history, symptomatology, etc., therefore I shall merely review the conditions present and the indications for treatment. As yet, no specific cause has been found, but we can almost certainly conclude that there " are fermentative and septic processes in the contents of the stomach and intestines, and these followed by production of large quantities of lactic and fatty acids."1 According to Escherich, Baginsky, Booker, Vaughan, Lesage and others, these changes are most probably brought about by microorganisms gaining entrance into the alimentary canal with the food. The following are the reasons for the belief in the specific origin of the disease: It is one occurring for the most part in epidemic form during the summer months, a time when fermentative processes are