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US state laws vary widely in the treatment of child support under joint custody. While some states require no child support in joint custody cases, other states require fathers with joint custody to pay the same amount as if they had no custody. The economic incentives generated by those custody laws can affect family decisions and the wellbeing of children of divorced parents, both under joint and sole custody. Merging child data from the SIPP with state child support guidelines, we find that economic incentives for joint custody have negative effects on the human capital development and health of children of divorced parents. Custody data together with parental characteristics and time use data suggest that economic incentives for joint custody may limit children's time spent with relatively high-quality mothers, as fathers pursue joint custody in response to the policy. We do not find an effect of economic incentives for joint custody on the probability of divorce and on the wellbeing of children in intact families. Our results are robust to specification changes, and the negative effects of economic incentives for joint custody on the wellbeing of children tend to be larger for girls and for children aged 12 and under.

Artificial water bodies at tropical latitudes have regular or extreme water contributions dependent of climate and interannual variations that result in differences in the physicochemical characteristics of the water; in addition to the climate. They receive peripheral runoff two, according to geomorphology; in the case of Mexican artificial water bodies as Cantera Oriente, they will also depend on the orography that entails changes in the volumes of water. All of this influence in conservative and non-conservative physiochemical components through dilute the water in the rainy season and concentrate it in the dry season. Therefore, this paper estimates the variations of: temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH, with nutrients (total phosphorus and nitrogen, chlorophyll “a” and primary production). In the Cantera Oriente all this parameters resulting in an oxic and anoxic condition, as well as a widely variable hypertrophy, depending on the month of year, in addition, anthropogenic sewage runoff must be added.

We show there is a much stronger negative, dynamic relation between changes in economic uncertainty and Treasury yields over weaker economic times since at least 1990. We document this economic-state variation in uncertainty-yield dynamics for weekly and monthly change horizons, for nominal yields and real-yield proxies, for multiple economic-state identification methods, and for different economic uncertainty metrics. We present additional findings that suggest short-term fluctuations in precautionary-savings and consumption-smoothing forces are more impactful on interest rate dynamics during weaker economic times, especially relying on surveys of expected economic growth and inflation. Received February 8, 2019; editorial decision August 24, 2020 by Editor Nikolai Roussanov. Authors have furnished an Internet Appendix, which is available on the Oxford University Press Web site next to the link to the final published paper online.

Medicaid reimbursements for physician services are determined by each state. However, how these reimbursements vary between states, and how these reimbursements vary in comparison to Medicare reimbursements is unknown for musculoskeletal radiology studies.To evaluate the variability in Medicaid and Medicare physician reimbursements for musculoskeletal imaging studies between states.We evaluated the Medicare and Medicaid physician reimbursements for the most commonly performed musculoskeletal radiology studies (15 radiographs and 10 MRIs) based on Medicare's 2017 National Summary Data File. Medicare and Medicaid reimbursements for these studies were compared by dollar difference (difference in reimbursement in dollars between Medicare and Medicaid). State-wide variability in these reimbursements was quantified by the coefficient of variation (COV) and by the dollar difference in reimbursement amounts. Medicaid and Medicare reimbursement rates were compared using a paired t-test, since the data was paired by state.The mean Medicaid reimbursement rates were lower for musculoskeletal radiographs (p 0.05) but higher for musculoskeletal MRI studies than the Medicare rates (p 0.05). As hypothesized, there was variation in both Medicare and Medicaid imaging reimbursements between states, however, the variation was substantially higher for Medicaid reimbursements. We found the Medicare reimbursement COV between states was 0.07 for all imaging studies, whereas the Medicaid reimbursement COV between states varied from 0.23 to 0.55 for radiographs and from 0.31 to 0.45 for MRIs.The data show that there is mild, but constant variation across imaging studies in Medicare reimbursement for musculoskeletal imaging studies between states. However, there is more variation in the Medicaid reimbursements across imaging studies and between states. More appropriate reimbursement may increase access to care for Medicaid patients.

For many low-income Medicare beneficiaries, Medicaid provides important supplemental insurance that covers out-of-pocket costs and additional benefits. We examine whether Medicaid participation by low-income adults age 65 and up increased as a result of Medicaid expansions to working-age adults under the Affordable Care Act (ACA). Previous literature documents so-called “welcome mat” effects in other populations but has not explicitly studied older persons dually eligible for Medicare and Medicaid. We extend this literature by estimating models of Medicaid participation among persons age 65 and up using American Community Survey data from 2010 to 2017 and state variation in ACA Medicaid expansions. We find that Medicaid expansions to working-age adults increased Medicaid participation among low-income older adults by 1.8 percentage points (4.4 percent). We also find evidence of an “on-ramp” effect; that is, low-income Medicare beneficiaries residing in expansion states who were young enough to gain coverage under the 2014 ACA Medicaid expansions before aging into Medicare were 4 percentage points (9.5 percent) more likely to have dual Medicaid coverage relative to similar individuals who either turned 65 before the 2014 expansions or resided in non-expansion states. This on-ramp effect is an important mechanism behind welcome mat effects among some older adults.

Since the New Deal, labor has been a key member of the Democratic coalition. As unions decline, their centrality to the Democratic Party has also diminished. At the same time, state variation in party preferences, party strength, and the types of unions that remain has led some unions to become involved in Republican politics. In this manuscript we investigate how central unions are in party networks using state legislative donation data from 2000–2016. We find that union contributions are associated with increasing centrality to the Democratic Party, while business interest contributions are associated with unions being less central. Only union membership rates are related to labor’s position in the Republican network. This work has implications for how we consider which groups are under a party’s umbrella. While labor may spend more money, it cannot keep pace with business groups in the party coalition.

This article investigates the torque characteristics of a switched flux hybrid magnet memory machine (SF-HMMM) by employing a coupled solution combining a quasi-linear hysteresis model (QLHM) of low coercive force (LCF) magnet and frozen-permeability method (FPM). This provides an in-depth understanding of the torque production of SF-HMMM. The QLHM is utilized to characterize the repetitive remagnetizing/demagnetizing behaviors of LCF permanent magnets (PMs), while the FPM is employed to separate and quantify the torque contributions due to two sets of PMs and armature windings. The machine topology and analysis methodology are described, respectively. The torque segregation results accounting for magnetization state variation are analyzed by the proposed coupled solution. The influence of the LCF PM property on the torque segregation result is investigated to facilitate the establishment of general design guidelines. Finally, the prototype is tested to experimentally validate the theoretical analysis.

Importance Substantial increases in both neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) and maternal opioid use disorder have been observed through 2014. Objective To examine national and state variation in NAS and maternal opioid-related diagnoses (MOD) rates in 2017 and to describe national and state changes since 2010 in the US, which included expanded MOD codes (opioid use disorder plus long-term and unspecified use) implemented inInternational Classification of Disease, 10th Revision, Clinical Modification. Design, Setting, and Participants Repeated cross-sectional analysis of the 2010 to 2017 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project’s National Inpatient Sample and State Inpatient Databases, an all-payer compendium of hospital discharge records from community nonrehabilitation hospitals in 47 states and the District of Columbia. Exposures State and year. Main Outcomes and Measures NAS rate per 1000 birth hospitalizations and MOD rate per 1000 delivery hospitalizations. Results In 2017, there were 751 037 birth hospitalizations and 748 239 delivery hospitalizations in the national sample; 5375 newborns had NAS and 6065 women had MOD documented in the discharge record. Mean gestational age was 38.4 weeks and mean maternal age was 28.8 years. From 2010 to 2017, the estimated NAS rate significantly increased by 3.3 per 1000 birth hospitalizations (95% CI, 2.5-4.1), from 4.0 (95% CI, 3.3-4.7) to 7.3 (95% CI, 6.8-7.7). The estimated MOD rate significantly increased by 4.6 per 1000 delivery hospitalizations (95% CI, 3.9-5.4), from 3.5 (95% CI, 3.0-4.1) to 8.2 (95% CI, 7.7-8.7). Larger increases for MOD vs NAS rates occurred with newInternational Classification of Disease, 10th Revision, Clinical Modificationcodes in 2016. From a census of 47 state databases in 2017, NAS rates ranged from 1.3 per 1000 birth hospitalizations in Nebraska to 53.5 per 1000 birth hospitalizations in West Virginia, with Maine (31.4), Vermont (29.4), Delaware (24.2), and Kentucky (23.9) also exceeding 20 per 1000 birth hospitalizations, while MOD rates ranged from 1.7 per 1000 delivery hospitalizations in Nebraska to 47.3 per 1000 delivery hospitalizations in Vermont, with West Virginia (40.1), Maine (37.8), Delaware (24.3), and Kentucky (23.4) also exceeding 20 per 1000 delivery hospitalizations. From 2010 to 2017, NAS and MOD rates increased significantly for all states except Nebraska and Vermont, which only had MOD increases. Conclusions and Relevance In the US from 2010 to 2017, estimated rates of NAS and MOD significantly increased nationally and for the majority of states, with notable state-level variation.

Problems are discussed in evaluating character state variation in the insect order Thysanoptera, particularly in the family Phlaeothripidae, illustrated by two such problems in the genus Haplothrips Amyot & Serville. The synonymy of Jironiella Retana-Salazar & Soto-Rodriguez with Haplothrips is reconfirmed, and Haplothrips aliakbarii Mirab-balou & Miri is recognised as a new synonym of H. globiceps Bagnall.

Early life stress (ELS) may become embedded into an individual's stress physiology, changing their hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis in an enduring, trait-like fashion. Cortisol is often utilized to investigate HPA-axis function. However, for "trait" cortisol to be a useful construct, it needs to be internally consistent within measurement occasions and show temporal stability of this reliability. These estimates of physiometrics are rarely tested with biological variables such as cortisol. Identifying reliable and stable individual differences in cortisol may be particularly important when examining questions related to the long-term impact of ELS on HPA-axis function. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to model latent trait cortisol (LTC) may be a useful statistical approach to capture trait-like indexes of HPA-axis functioning. CFA identifies commonalities among repeated cortisol samples to differentiate characteristic patterns (i.e. a trait) from day-to-day or state variation and measurement error. It is unclear whether LTC estimates are stable prospectively, or if ELS is prospectively associated with LTC. Therefore, we derived LTC factors for 84 adolescent girls (ages 10-17 years) using two-morning salivary cortisol samples, collected sequentially for three days at baseline and again at a one-year follow-up. LTC was internally consistent at both assessments and stable over one year. Greater exposure to ELS was associated with lower LTC over a one-year follow-up. Findings support LTC modeling as a useful strategy to estimate trait-like HPA-axis functioning and suggest that exposure to ELS is associated with lower trait-like cortisol.

The drug felony lifetime ban on Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) affects thousands of individuals with felony drug convictions in the United States. Federal law allows states to choose to opt out or modify the full ban. Prior research has treated the ban as a binary outcome, characterizing anything but a full ban as a sign of state reform of this harsh collateral consequence. We argue that modified versions of the ban, which simultaneously allow greater access to public aid while also monitoring and sanctioning recipient behavior, have been overlooked but pose important theoretical and empirical challenges to this narrative. To address this gap, we analyze state discretion in the implementation of the drug felony lifetime ban on TANF receipt between 1997 and 2010 utilizing a multilevel multinomial modeling strategy. Results reveal that distinct patterns of state-level factors are associated with each form of the ban, highlighting the need to treat modified bans as unique policy choices in their own right. Our study informs the understanding of state implementation of collateral consequences that straddle both the penal and welfare systems in the United States.

We exploit state variation in licensing laws to study the effect of licensing on occupational choice using a boundary discontinuity design. We find that licensing reduces equilibrium labor supply by an average of 17%-27%. The negative labor supply effects of licensing appear to be strongest for white workers and comparatively weaker for black workers.

The paper deals with the assessment of stress-strain state variation in rock massifs upon the formation of displacement moulds and surface sinkholes in the undermined areas of Verkhnekamskoe potassium salt deposit in Perm krai, Russia. Engineering geological conditions, as well as natural and technogenic factors influencing the development of hazardous geological processes are described by the example of one typical site of the deposit. Methodical issues of the development of geomechanical model for this site and compilation of finite-element calculation scheme with selecting calculation parameters of rock properties and boundary conditions of the calculation area are considered. Regularities in the variation of stress fields and rock massif deformations upon cutting mines at one depth are considered. The possible mechanisms of deformation and destruction of karstified rock massifs upon the formation of technonatural sinkholes on the earth surface are described. The results of the study are significant for predicting hazardous processes and undertaking protective measures.

Plume-spatter signatures during Selective Laser Melting (SLM) are a good indication of their corresponding melt states. It is important to build the relationship between the signatures and defects for the SLM process monitoring. In this work, the mechanism of the plume and the spatter was investigated for the melted state detection. Single tracks were produced on the 304L stainless steel powder with monitoring by a Near-Infrared (NIR) camera. Signatures of the plume and spatter during the SLM process were collected for the analyses of the characteristics. Results provided the properties of the plume, the spatter, and the entire target region of the image as well as their relations with the melted tracks. Plume-spatter signatures had distinct behaviors among the underheating, normal, and overheating melting processes. In the melted state variation, laser power played a more decisive role than scanning speed by changing laser energy density. This work contributed to the feasibility and possibility for the SLM process monitoring by the plume and spatter signatures.

Highlights • In 2005–2017, US states liberalized statutes on cause of death signature authority. • State variation in signature authority contributes to cause of death inaccuracies. • Logistic regressions suggest certifier type influences death certificate accuracy. • Death certificate training is needed across the array of professional certifiers. • Cause of Death Signature Authority database allows for more robust analysis of certification errors., This study utilized a convergent mixed-methods design to examine whether variation in death certificate certifier type predicts the accuracy of cause of death reporting in the US. We analyzed the content of state statutes, amendments, and policies concerning cause of death signature authority in 2005–2017 to create the Cause of Death Signature Authority (CoDSA) database. After merging the CoDSA data with 2005–2017 National Vital Statistics System Multiple Cause of Death Mortality files for adults with cerebral palsy (CP) (N = 29,996), we employed logistic regression models to determine the likelihood that different certifier groups made one particular type of death certification error – inaccurately reporting CP as the underlying cause of death (UCOD). The content analysis provided evidence of significant liberalization of cause of death signature authority, with 23 states expanding signature authority to include physician extenders. Logistic regression analysis revealed differences in UCOD accuracy based on certifier type. Compared to medical examiners, the likelihood of CP being reported as the UCOD, was: 41% higher (CI 1.12, 1.78) for coroners; 25% higher (1.05, 1.49) for mixed-system death investigators; 24% higher (1.08, 1.42) for physicians; and 16% higher (1.00, 1.34) for physician extenders. Inaccuracies limit public health efforts aimed at improving the health and longevity for disadvantaged populations, such as people with CP. Poor performance among cause of death certifiers may indicate systemic problems with death certification that should be addressed with more robust training for all professional groups with signature authority.

Thrips korbuensis sp.n. is described from a high elevated area in Peninsular Malaysia. It shares many character states with Thrips coloratus but has 8-segmented antennae and abdominal segment VIII–X uniformly dark. It also shares some features with Thrips florum, and variation in some character states used to distinguish species in the Thrips hawaiiensis group are discussed. Two species, Thrips brevistylus and Thrips subnudula, are recorded for the first time from Malaysia, and an updated checklist is provided of 27 species of the genus Thrips recorded from Malaysia.

Consumers play a key role in the U.S. nursing home (NH) oversight through a federally established complaint process. However, past variation by state in complaint numbers and rates raised questions about the uniformity of the process. We examined state variation in numbers of complaints at intake and substantiated complaints, percentages of NHs with at least one complaint and one substantiated complaint, number of allegations per complaint, and complaint substantiation rates. We found state variation most prominently at the intake level, ranging from 0.4 to 30.4 complaints per NH. The investigation process appears to reduce this variation: however, variation remains among states in frequency and prevalence of substantiated complaints. Further work is needed to ensure federal standards concerning the handling of consumer complaints are applied equally across the states. This includes policies affecting how complaints are initially filed, in addition to how complaints are investigated.

BackgroundAlthough cross-state variation of the opioid epidemic in the United States are well documented in general, little are known about the epidemic in privately insured individuals.ObjectivesTo describe cross-state variation in Opioid Use Disorder (OUD) among privately insured individuals in the US for the years 2005-2015 and investigate demographic differences of OUD patients between a group of hard-hit states and the rest states.MethodsThe MarketScan® Commercial Claims and Encounters database was used to calculate prevalence of opioid use disorder for the 50 states in the US, respectively. We analyzed level and change of OUD prevalence in each state from 2005 to 2015 and identified the states which were affected most by the epidemic. One-sided exact fisher test was used to analyze demographic difference of the epidemic in the hard-hit states and the remaining states.ResultsCross-state variations of the opioid epidemic among privately insured population were substantial, both in terms of severity and acceleration of the epidemic. Demographic patterns of the epidemic were similar across states. The 18-34 age group was the most affected group with the highest prevalence. The 55-64 group experienced the most rapid increase of OUD prevalence, especially in states that suffered most in the epidemic.ConclusionsResults can assist policy makers to design better clinical and policy interventions on the opioid epidemic, especially on privately insured individuals. Drastic increase of OUD prevalence among the 55-64 group might indicate the need to improve prescription drug monitoring programs for chronic pain, especially in states more affected by the epidemic.

Douglass C. North, co-winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1993, became a major leader in historical and comparative political science and in the study of institutions more generally. His work proved particularly relevant for those interested in questions of state building, state variation, development, and long-term secular change.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Home nursing is essential for children with medical complexity (CMC), but provision varies substantially across states. Our objectives were to quantify state-to-state variability in distribution of posthospitalization home nursing to commercially insured CMC and to rank-order states. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of hospitalized commercially insured children with ≥1 complex chronic condition from birth to 18 years of age in the Truven MarketScan database. Cohort eligibility criteria were hospital discharge between January 2013 and November 2016 and at least 30 days of follow-up after discharge. Two primary outcome measures were used: receipt of any home nursing within 30 days of hospital discharge (yes or no) and number of days of posthospitalization home nursing (1–30 days). A composite metric encompassing both receipt and quantity was created by evaluating the 95th percentile of days of home nursing (0–30 days). RESULTS: Overall, 9.9% of the sample received home nursing. After we adjusted for patient characteristics, the probability of receiving home nursing varied across states, ranging from 3.4% to 19.2%. Among home nursing recipients, the adjusted median home nursing days across states ranged from 6.6 to 24.5 days. The adjusted 95th percentile of days of home nursing (across the entire of sample, including recipients and nonrecipients of home nursing) ranged from 6.8 to 22.6 days. CONCLUSIONS: We observed striking state-to-state variability in receipt of home nursing and mean number of days of posthospitalization home nursing among commercially insured CMC after adjustment for demographic and clinical differences. This suggests opportunities for state-level improvement.

This paper investigates whether and to what extent the low unemployment insurance (UI) tax base in the United States creates disincentives to hire low-wage workers. Using data from the Current Population Survey and state variation in the UI tax base over 30 years, I estimate that a 10 percent nominal increase in the tax base raises the teenage employment rate by 1.4 percent, and indexing the tax base increases the teenage employment rate by 6 percent. These results offer evidence that the erosion of the UI tax base has reduced the employment of low-wage workers.

The Hispanic Paradox in birth outcomes is well documented for the US as a whole, but little work has considered geographic variation underlying the national pattern. This inquiry is important given the rapid growth of the Hispanic population and its geographic dispersion. Using birth records data from 2014 through 2016, we document state variation in birthweight differentials between US-born white women and the three Hispanic populations with the largest numbers of births: US-born Mexican women, foreign-born Mexican women, and foreign-born Central and South American women. Our analyses reveal substantial geographic variation in Hispanic immigrant-white low birthweight disparities. For example, Hispanic immigrants in Southeastern states and in some states from other regions have reduced risk of low birthweight relative to whites, consistent with a "Hispanic Paradox." A significant portion of Hispanic immigrants' birthweight advantage in these states is explained by lower rates of smoking relative to whites. However, Hispanic immigrants have higher rates of low birthweight in California and several other Western states. The different state patterns are largely driven by geographic variation in smoking among whites, rather than geographic differences in Hispanic immigrants' birthweights. In contrast, US-born Mexicans generally have similar or slightly higher odds of low birthweight than whites across the US. Overall, we show that the Hispanic Paradox in birthweight varies quite dramatically by state, driven by geographic variation in low birthweight among whites associated with white smoking disparities across states.

This paper uses data from the Behavioural Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) over the period 2014–2019 to analyse the impact of removing surgical requirements to change legal gender. In many states transgender people are forced to undergo surgical procedures if they wish to change their gender on ID documents, which can be invasive, expensive, and is not always desired. In the present work state variation in the timing of the removal of surgical requirements is exploited within a triple difference framework to analyse the causal impact of these removals on the employment of transgender people, for the first time. The findings highlight that removing surgical requirements for transgender people to be able to reassign gender on birth certificates increases the employment of female to male transgender people, but has no effect on male to female or gender non-conforming transgender people.

Many advantages make electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) grinding desirable for cutting hard and brittle material with high surface requirements. The self-electrolytic in-process dressing property in ELID grinding is also largely responsible for the shorter wear life and lower forming accuracy of the grinding wheel. In ELID grinding, except for traditional mechanical wear, the electrolytic oxidation wear also adds more uncertainties to the wear velocity of the grinding wheel. To date, few investigations focused on the grinding wheel wear life characterization in ELID cut-in grinding of ball bearing raceway. In this study, the wear life characterization of the grinding wheel during ELID grinding was quantitatively simulated by a moving normal distribution curve of the grit state variation. As all types of cutting grits wear out, so did the normal distribution curve, showing movement towards the grinding wheel center. With the normal distribution curve moving towards the grinding wheel center, a local acceleration and local deceleration in moving velocities occurred. It is the diversity of the moving speed of the normal distribution curve that provides a quantitative description to understand the wear life characterization of the ELID grinding wheel. Some experimental results can easily explain this new proposed perspective. This new perspective can also be extended to predict the forming accuracy and surface topography of the bearing raceway during ELID grinding.

This paper is focused on change in shrinkage, GSM, Wales per Inch and Course per Inch due to structure and count variation and state variation. This work was carried out with 12 samples of single jersey, single lacoste and weft lock knit fabrics of different counts which were scoured with NaOH. After pretreatment process the samples were tested for widthwise shrinkage, width, GSM, Wales per Inch and Course per Inch and compared between different states like grey state and finished state. The result obtained in this research indicated that physical properties like structures with tuck stitch possess higher value of widthwise shrinkage, width, GSM and Wales per Inch and Course per Inch value lowers prominently in those structures having float or miss stitches. In both cases i.e. grey state and RFD state values of those properties are high in coarser yarn and low in finer yarn. During project knitted fabrics specification along with machine specification and major factors which are necessary to calculate different types of variation and variables on which the whole fabric construction depends were managed to watch carefully. Main efforts were to develop a dependable way so that the resulting fabric specifications with required configuration can be easily visualized and be forecasted. A great emphasization was provided to the adjustable points on which fabric GSM, stitch length, fabric width and shrinkage percentage directly or indirectly depends.

According to the Supplemental Poverty Measure, state-level poverty rates range from a low of less than 10 percent in Iowa to a high of more than 20 percent in California. We seek to account for these differences using a theoretical framework proposed by Brady, Finnigan, and Hubgen (2017), which emphasizes the prevalence of poverty risk factors as well as poverty penalties associated with each risk factor. We estimate state-specific penalties and prevalences associated with single motherhood, low education, young households, and joblessness. We also consider state variation in the poverty risks associated with living in a black household and a Hispanic immigrant household. Brady et al. (2017) find that country-level differences in poverty rates are more closely tied to penalties than prevalences. Using data from the Current Population Survey, we find that the opposite is true for state-level differences in poverty rates. Although we find that state poverty differences are closely tied to the prevalence of high-risk populations, our results do not suggest that state-level antipoverty policy should be solely focused on changing "risky" behavior. Based on our findings, we conclude that state policies should take into account cost-of-living penalties as well as the state-specific relationship between poverty, prevalences, and penalties.

This work interrogates the role of the law as an "actor" in the spatial patterning of racial classification. Laws governing racial intermarriage represent key ways that rigid distinctions between groups were codified. Critically, there is a great deal of state variation in these laws. We draw on a unique data set that combines samples from the 1990 and 2000 Census (5 percent IPUMS) and the 2009-2011 estimates from the American Community Survey with information on state-specific legal bans against intermarriage. Results from multilevel logistic and multinomial analyses indicate that a past of legal regulation is associated with a lower likelihood of a "mixed" classification for the offspring of black-white interracial unions, particularly in the 2009-11 period. Our results provide evidence that place-specific institutional legacies are imprinted on the classification choices made even in the midst of expanding options.

In this study, the surface-chemistry-dependent hydrophobicity and antibacterial properties of ITO films were examined. After annealing of the films, their surface root-mean-square roughness increased and remained the same regardless of the annealing environment. However, depending on the annealing environment (O 2 , N 2 , Ar, or vacuum), the contact angle increased with increasing Sn 2+ contents in the films. Furthermore, the antibacterial effect of the annealed films decreased regardless of the annealing environment. The depth-dependent chemical state determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed an increase in the Sn content at the surfaces of all films. In particular, the as-grown film exhibited the highest Sn content at the surface and also the strongest antibacterial effect.

A segment of the Brazilian population lives in households experiencing severe food insecurity (SFI). We used logistic regression models to assess the secular trend of SFI in Brazilian municipalities, between the years of 2004 and 2013. At the state-level, there was a reduction of the prevalence of SFI during this period, with reduction rates ranging from −2.5% to −75.2% with only one state showing positive increase in SFI. The inter and intra-regional/state variation of SFI found in 2004 remained in 2013, although it was less pronounced. Brazil is currently experiencing a serious economic and political crisis that calls for continuing monitoring of SFI. This study is very relevant for the rest of the world as it shows that experience based food security scales can provide a very useful indicator for policy makers as it can track severe SFI across time from the national to the municipal level.

Introduction Flavors can mask the harshness of tobacco and make it appealing to young people. This study assessed flavored and menthol tobacco product sales at the national and state levels. Methods Universal Product Code tobacco sales data collected by Nielsen were combined for convenience stores and all-outlets-combined during October 22, 2011-January 9, 2016. Products were characterized as flavored, menthol, or non-flavored/non-menthol. Total unit sales, and the proportion of flavored and menthol unit sales, were assessed nationally and by state for seven tobacco products. Joinpoint regression was used to assess trends in average monthly percentage change. Results Nationally, the proportion of flavored and menthol sales in 2015 was as follows: cigarettes (32.5% menthol), large cigars (26.1% flavored), cigarillos (47.5% flavored, 0.2% menthol), little cigars (21.8% flavored, 19.4% menthol), chewing tobacco (1.4% flavored, 0.7% menthol), moist snuff (3.0% flavored, 57.0% menthol), and snus (88.5% menthol). From 2011 to 2015, sales increased for flavored cigarillos and chewing tobacco, as well as for menthol cigarettes, little cigars, moist snuff, and snus. Sales decreased for flavored large cigars, moist snuff, and snus, and for menthol chewing tobacco. State-level variations were observed by product; for example, flavored little cigar sales ranged from 4.4% (Maine) to 69.3% (Utah) and flavored cigarillo sales ranged from 26.6% (Maine) to 63.0% (Maryland). Conclusions Menthol and flavored sales have increased since 2011, particularly for the products with the highest number of units sold, and significant state variation exists. Efforts to restrict flavored tobacco product sales could reduce overall U.S. tobacco consumption. Implications Flavors in tobacco products can mask the harshness of tobacco and make these products more appealing to young people. This is the first study to assess national and state-level trends in flavored and menthol tobacco product sales. These findings underscore the importance of population-based interventions to address flavored tobacco product use at the national, state, and local levels. Additionally, further monitoring of flavored and menthol tobacco product sales can inform potential future regulatory efforts at the national, state, and local levels.

Services offered through Part C of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act improve cognitive, behavioral, and physical skills for children less than 3 years old at risk for or with a disability. However, there are low enrollment rates into services. Various Lead Agencies oversee services through Part C, and states determine which agency is in charge of administering these services. The objective of this study was to describe odds of enrollment into early intervention services based on the department administering services (Lead Agency). Each state’s Lead Agency (Education, Health, or Other), state population size, narrowness of eligibility criteria, and state-level screening rates were fit into a negative binomial regression model to predict odds of enrollment into Part C services. Results show that state’s reporting from “Health” and “Other” as a Lead Agency had significantly higher odds for Part C services compared with the state Lead Agency of Education (Health adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.56, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.557, 1.561]; Other AOR = 2.40, 95% CI = [2.401, 2.405]). Further research should describe unique components of a Lead Agency’s administrative practices that contribute to the variation in enrollment. This study was an important step toward the investigation of low enrollment rates into Part C services.

This chapter discusses the results from Phelps, using data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics to chart the expansion of mass probation and evaluate whether mass probation developed in the same states—driven by the same criminal justice trends—as mass imprisonment. The primary data are state-level counts of probation and prison populations collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics and reported in the “Prisoners,” “Probation and Parole in the United States,” and “Correctional Populations in the United States” series. Yet the probation population—especially for misdemeanor offenses—is more difficult to enumerate than the number of people imprisoned. The variation in approaches to punishment—and, in particular, the unpredictable nature of low-imprisonment states’ probation rates—reveals that comparative research focused primarily on imprisonment rates fundamentally misconstrues state variation. The chapter examines state-level variation in incarceration and probation rates in 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010, evaluating whether probation expanded most rapidly in states that embraced imprisonment or those that maintained more moderate rates.

When solving a number of applied problems, the classifiers that work with samples of two-dimensional graphical dependences are very useful. The paper considers the approach to solving the classification problem of two-dimensional characteristic curves of biomedical signals, which illustrate human emotional state variation. It also describes a localization algorithm of interval consecutively enlarged sings. The intervals of enlarged attributes are determined by analyzing the rules that are generated during classifier training on primary data. The classifier is based on a neural-like hierarchical structure (NLHS) that is adapted to working with fuzzy object descriptions. During the learning process, class models are formed in a hierarchical structure of the classifier. These models are interpreted as fuzzy statements for a fuzzy inference system. Fuzzy statements reflect basic characteristics of all training sample objects and are presented to an expert in an understandable form. The algorithm of automatic generation of interval attributes allows localizing areas with equal values of fuzzy attributes. In fact, this leads to dividing of the investigated characteristic curves into segments with close estimates of their structural properties. The software implementation of the algorithm is tested on EEG and EMG. The paper investigates the effect of the application of successively enlarged attributes on the results of the examined data classification accuracy.

The use of NCAs is currently regulated under state law. These laws embody diverse approaches to the regulation of NCAs which generally limit enforcement of NCAs to those with reasonable and narrowly tailored terms. State law also incorporates various approaches to mitigating the negative effects NCAs might have on workers, including requiring adequate disclosure, consideration, and banning their use in certain employment contracts. These diverse approaches can leave regulatory gaps in certain states and can result in overregulation in others. But this can also be a feature—diverse approaches to legal regulation of NCAs at the state level takes advantage of the laboratory of the states to generate information that will allow economic research to better evaluate the effects of these diverse legal approaches without exposing the entire nation to potential mistakes. There has also been a growing and robust literature that has examined state variation in the regulation of NCAs and the effect of these laws on worker welfare. However, current evidence does not yet suggest a reliable and predictable link between the use of NCAs and the effect on employee welfare. Moreover, changes in employee welfare can be negatively correlated to changes in consumer welfare. Any antitrust rule that broadly prohibits the use and enforcement of NCAs would be based on incomplete evidence, would interfere with the current operation of the balanced and nuanced state by state approach to regulating NCAs, and would potentially be at odds with the antitrust laws’ focus on consumer welfare.

This study investigates the effects of variation of Vds and Vg on trapped charge in SONOS NVSM using Synopsis Sentaurus TCAD Simulator. We variate both drain voltage (0 volt/1volt/3volt/5 volt), gate voltage (3volt/4volt/5 volt). The result show that the trapped charge in SONOS memory vary when the programming voltage is changed. Moreover, we investigate the amount charge in 10 years after programming state. In this condition, Programming state of 3V gate and 5V drain have the smallest change in the rate of trapped charge after 10 years compared to the other variated voltage.

This paper suggests a state of charge and equivalent internal resistance estimating algorithm for a multi-cell application in the presence of inconsistencies between cell to cell. The proposed method is devised through the nonlinear-model-based robust state observer and the cell-difference-model-based online parameter identification technique. This method has the following contributions: 1) the average state of charge is robustly estimated even if there exist inconsistencies between cell to cell, and 2) based on the cell-difference-model and online parameter identification technique, the state of charge and equivalent internal resistance of all cells are identified. Performing the simulation and the experimentation, it is shown that the proposed method provides an accurate state of charge and equivalent internal resistance estimation performance for the multi-cell despite the cell-to-cell state variation.

The proposed piezoresistive effect model of suspended graphene pressure sensor assumes that the reference pressure in the sealed cavity is constant. The influence of gas state variation on the strain of graphene is not considered in the [1] cavity. Therefore, the accuracy of the model is not high, and not conducive to guiding design of high precision suspended graphene pressure sensor. In this paper, the change of the reference pressure caused by gas temperature and volume variation in cavity is considered. The piezoresistive effect model of the suspended graphene pressure sensor is improved using bulge test method and the ideal gas state equation. Model analysis shows that the change of gas state caused by gas temperature and volume variation changes the reference pressure in cavity, and ignoring the change of cavity gas state will reduce the accuracy of the piezoresistive effect model. The model error gets larger with larger temperature deviation from the initial value and smaller cavity volume. The improved piezoresistive effect model reduces the error introduced by the cavity gas state change and can be used to guide the design of the cavity structure and size of suspended graphene pressure sensor.

Do minimum wages and the EITC mitigate rising “deaths of despair?” We leverage state variation in these policies over time to estimate event study and difference-in-differences models of deaths due to drug overdose, suicide, and alcohol-related causes. Our causal models find no significant effects on drug or alcohol-related mortality, but do find significant reductions in non-drug suicides. A 10 percent minimum wage increase reduces non-drug suicides among low-educated adults by 2.7 percent; the comparable EITC figure is 3.0 percent. Placebo tests and event-study models support our causal research design. Increasing both policies by 10 percent would likely prevent a combined total of more than 700 suicides each year.

e24064 Background: The number of cancer survivors in the United States (U.S.) is projected to exceed 20 million by 2024. More and more U.S. states are legalizing marijuana use for both recreational and medicinal purposes. This study estimated the prevalence of marijuana use by state among adult cancer survivors. Methods: U.S nationally representative, cross-sectional data from the 2018-2019 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey (BRFSS) Marijuana Use module were used. A total of 13,174 cancer survivors in 17 states was included. Analyses were weighted to account for BRFSS’s complex survey design with results generalizable to 5.7 million cancer survivors. The outcome variable was marijuana use in the past 30 days. Weighted prevalence estimates were computed. Weighted, multivariable logistic regression model estimated the association between state and marijuana use, adjusting for sociodemographic, health, and healthcare factors. Analyses were performed in January 2021. Results: The prevalence of past-month marijuana use among adult cancer survivors in these states was 9.2%. States varied widely in terms of the prevalence of marijuana use. Marijuana use was higher among those who resided in Guam (15.9%), followed by New Hampshire (13.1%), and lowest for those in Puerto Rico (3.3%) ( p< 0.0001). In the adjusted models, compared with the adult cancer survivors residing in California, those living in Maryland, Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, West Virginia, and Wyoming were significantly less likely to use marijuana. Conclusions: Nearly 9% of adult cancer survivors used marijuana, and those who resided in Guam, New Hampshire, Florida, and California are at higher risk for marijuana use. Given the increasing number of cancer survivors and the proliferation of marijuana legalization, identifying high-risk cancer survivors for marijuana use and informing physicians and patients about safe uses and doses and the potential adverse effects of marijuana use is critical.

Background Diagnosis and treatment of acute or impending compartment syndrome (ACS) remains a clinical challenge. ACS is a clinical diagnosis, and may be associated with variation in its definition, as well as individual threshold for fasciotomy. We examined regional and state variation in rates of lower extremity fasciotomy associated with operatively managed tibia fractures. Methods A total of 313,344 surgically treated tibia fractures were identified via Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes using PearlDiver, a private-payer medical record database. Data from the PearlDiver database was compared to the National Trauma Data Bank trauma registry data to corroborate calculated fasciotomy rates. Results The aggregate United States fasciotomy rate derived from PearlDiver was 2.57%. State fasciotomy rates were wide-ranging (0.03%–11.86%) with an average state rate of 2.22% (n = 47, SD = 2.27). Conclusions There was significant state-to-state variation in the use of fasciotomy during operative management of tibial fractures. Various factors may have contributed to the observed difference of state fasciotomy rates. Level of evidence This is a Level III epidemiological study retrospectively comparing geographic rates of fasciotomy during operative management of tibia fractures.

A study is carried out experimentally on the anisotropy in the laser action of Yb:Ca 3 La 2 (BO 3 ) 4 disordered crystal, demonstrated with the output coupling changed over a wide range from 0.5% to 40%. Complex polarization state variation with output coupling and evolution with pump power are observed in the laser operation achieved with a - and c -cut crystal samples. A maximum output power of 8.2 W is produced at wavelengths around 1043 nm, with an incident pump power of 24.9 W, the optical-to-optical efficiency being 33%. The polarized absorption and emission cross section spectra are also presented.

Medicaid is vastly more important than Medicare or private insurance in funding long-term care (LTC). However, states vary tremendously in their commitment to Medicaid LTC. This article advances knowledge of the origins, nature, and implications of this variation. After examining the degree of variation in state spending on Medicaid LTC, we show how federal policy has over the past fifty years steadily increased state discretion to shape these services. This decentralization largely reflects the potency of the intergovernmental lobby—governors and other state officials—in influencing federal policy. While fueling state variation, the intergovernmental lobby has also provided valuable political support that has helped Medicaid grow and resist retrenchment. After considering policy options that could mitigate Medicaid LTC inequities rooted in state differences, we assess how the catalytic forces that have fueled growth in Medicaid LTC may be insufficient to protect the program from future erosion.

To understand the role of Medicaid in financing health services delivered through special education, program characteristics and covered services were compared from all 50 states and Washington, D.C. Data were collected from school-based fee schedules and policy manuals available through state Medicaid or education agencies. Except Wyoming, all states bill Medicaid for school-based health services, but there is substantive variation across states in services covered. The service categories most often covered by states’ Medicaid special education programs are speech–language/audiology, occupational/physical therapy, and behavioral health. Almost all states use a fee-for-service payment methodology to reimburse for services. Implications for the delivery of care to and health outcomes of students with disabilities are discussed.

Objectives To ascertain differences across states in children's oral health care access and oral health status and the factors that contribute to those differences. Study design Observational study using cross-sectional surveys. Methods Using the 2007 National Survey of Children's Health, we examined state variation in parents' report of children's oral health care access (absence of a preventive dental visit) and oral health status. We assessed the unadjusted prevalences of these outcomes, then adjusted with child-, family-, and neighbourhood-level variables using logistic regression; these results are presented directly and graphically. Using multilevel analysis, we then calculated the degree to which child-, family-, and community-level variables explained state variation. Finally, we quantified the influence of state-level variables on state variation. Results Unadjusted rates of no preventive dental care ranged 9.0–26.8% (mean 17.5%), with little impact of adjusting (10.3–26.7%). Almost 9% of the population had fair/poor oral health; unadjusted range 4.1–14.5%. Adjusting analyses affected fair/poor oral health more than access (5.7–10.7%). Child, family and community factors explained ∼¼ of the state variation in no preventive visit and ∼½ of fair/poor oral health. State-level factors further contributed to explaining up to a third of residual state variation. Conclusion Geography matters: where a child lives has a large impact on his or her access to oral health care and oral health status, even after adjusting for child, family, community, and state variables. As state-level variation persists, other factors and richer data are needed to clarify the variation and drive changes for more egalitarian and overall improved oral health.