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ZusammenfassungEine 5,5 Jahre alte Alpakastute wurde aufgrund einer Lahmheit hinten rechts an die Universitätsklinik für Wiederkäuer überwiesen. Vorberichtlich war bereits vor ca. 6 Monaten eine systemische antibiotische Therapie über mehrere Tage durchgeführt worden, worauf sich das Gangbild verbesserte und die Lahmheit kaum noch zu beobachten war. Zum damaligen Zeitpunkt gab es seitens der Tierhalter keinen Hinweis auf eine traumatische Ursache für diese Lahmheit. Bei der klinischen Aufnahmeuntersuchung zeigte sich kaudal des rechten Tuber coxae eine ca. 2 × 2 cm große, fluktuierende, nicht vermehrt warme, nicht schmerzhafte Umfangsvermehrung, welche zum darunterliegenden Gewebe hin verschieblich war. Zudem wurde eine mittelgradige, gemischte Lahmheit mit überwiegendem Anteil der Hangbeinkomponente am rechten Hinterbein diagnostiziert. Als weiterführende diagnostische Maßnahme wurde eine sonographische Untersuchung der rechten Gluteal- und Hüftgelenksregion durchgeführt, wobei hochgradige Knochenkonturveränderungen im Bereich des rechten Hüftgelenkes festgestellt wurden. Zur weiteren Abklärung wurde eine röntgenologische Untersuchung des Beckens vorgenommen. Unter Miteinbeziehung der klinisch festgestellten Fistelöffnung an der rechten Glutealregion und den Befunden der radiologischen Untersuchung wurde die Diagnose einer bereits seit längerem bestehenden infizierten Fraktur des rechten Darmbeines mit hochgradiger unregelmäßig verkalkter Kallusbildung und gering- bis mittelgradiger Osteomyelitis gestellt. Aufgrund der sonografischen und röntgenologischen Befunde wurde eine schlechte Prognose gestellt und der Patient euthanasiert. Zur weiteren Dokumentation und um das Ausmaß der pathologischen Veränderungen besser darstellen zu können, wurde zusätzlich eine computertomografische Untersuchung vom Becken und der Lendenwirbelsäule im Bereich L3–L6 durchgeführt. Zur finalen Abklärung wurde eine pathohistologische Untersuchung der festgestellten Knochenveränderungen sowie eine bakteriologische Untersuchung des Abszessinhaltes vorgenommen.Anhand des hier vorgestellten Falles wird ersichtlich, wie wichtig eine gründliche klinische und orthopädische Untersuchung und vor allem zusätzlich weiterführende Untersuchungen sind, da vor allem Neuweltkamele oftmals nur geringe klinische Symptome zeigen, obwohl Veränderungen bereits massiv ausgeprägt sein können.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel In der Studie erfolgte eine Online-Umfrage unter Züchtern von Neuweltkameliden in Österreich, Deutschland und der Schweiz mit dem Ziel, mehr über die Haltung und das Reproduktionsmanagement von Neuweltkameliden zu erfahren. Material und Methode Der Link zur Umfrage wurde per E-Mail an 8 Zuchtvereine ausgesendet. Der Fragebogen umfasste insgesamt 24 geschlossene oder offene Fragen. Der Zeitraum für die Teilnahme war Mai bis Oktober 2019. Ergebnisse Von insgesamt 92 teilnehmenden Züchtern beantworteten 64 alle Fragen. Neuweltkameliden wurden hauptsächlich zur Zucht (87 %) und Fasergewinnung (74 %) genutzt. Die mediane Herdengröße betrug 27 Tiere, wobei Stuten dominierten. Das Wissen zur Zucht eigneten sich die meisten Züchter (74 %) über persönliche Kontakte und Fortbildungen an. Die Bedeckung der Stuten erfolgte in der Mehrzahl der Zuchtbetriebe (57 %) mit einem eigenen, getrennt von den Stuten gehaltenen Hengst. Zur Trächtigkeitsdiagnostik wurde hauptsächlich (91 %) der Spucktest herangezogen und mit anderen Methoden, insbesondere der Ultraschalldiagnostik, kombiniert. Die Trächtigkeitsdauer der Stuten lag meist (88 %) im Referenzbereich von 335–360 Tagen. Wiederholte Probleme mit Trächtigkeitsverlusten gaben 76 % der Züchter bei weniger als 5 % ihrer Stuten an. Postpartale Probleme wurden insgesamt eher selten genannt und betrafen z. B. Milchmangel oder Mastitis (jeweils < 5 %). Mehr als die Hälfte der Züchter hatte in den letzten 3 Jahren Crias mit einem Problem während der Geburt, wobei hinsichtlich der Ursachen keine deutliche Häufung festgestellt werden konnte. Die Mehrheit der Befragten (69 %) war mit der tierärztlichen Betreuung in den Bereichen Versorgung, Trächtigkeit und Geburtshilfe zufrieden. Schlussfolgerung Die Ergebnisse dieser Umfrage liefern neue Einblicke in das Management von Neuweltkameliden-Züchtern in Österreich, Deutschland und der Schweiz. Weitere Studien könnten diese Praktiken mit denen in Ländern vergleichen, in denen die Zucht südamerikanischer Kameliden eine längere Tradition und andere kommerzielle Hintergründe hat. Klinische Relevanz Die Ergebnisse helfen Tierärzten, sich auf mögliche Probleme und Fragestellungen in der Betreuung von Neuweltkameliden hinsichtlich des Reproduktionsmanagements vorzubereiten.

Two cattle were referred to the University Clinic for Ruminants of the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna. The main clinical sign in both cattle was dyspnoea with nasal stridor. Clinical examination of the upper respiratory tract was conducted, supplemented by ultrasonography, endoscopy and radiography. In addition, histological, bacteriological, and cytological examinations of different specimen materials were performed. The cow of Case 1 suffered from cystic nasal conchae, which was treated successfully by a laser technique. The cow of Case 2 also suffered from cystic nasal conchae. No surgery was performed in this case because the cyst opened spontaneously the day after diagnostic endoscopic procedures had been performed and the animal did not show any respiratory signs anymore. Pathological changes in the upper respiratory tract, such as nasal obstructions, should be included in the list of differential diagnoses in cattle showing respiratory distress.

Although alpacas are becoming increasingly popular animals, their behaviour towards humans has received little research interest until now. The purpose of our study was to investigate, for the first time, associations between caretaker attitudes and handling practices (i.e., frequency of different types of contact, and the use of training) and alpaca behaviour in the presence of humans in a large sample of alpaca caretakers. To this end, we conducted an online survey among German-speaking alpaca caretakers. Regarding alpaca behaviour, we were interested in their behaviour towards their caretaker’s approach (assessed as ‘the majority of the alpacas run away’ / ‘keep standing’ / ‘approach the caretaker’), ease of handling in different situations (rated on a 5-point scale), and behavioural problems (spitting, kicking, biting, rising, pushing, or several of these behaviours beyond the normal level) from the caretakers’ point of view. To avoid reactance in participants, we decided against a forced choice answer format, which resulted in varying sample sizes. Questions assessing general attitudes, affective attitudes, behavioural beliefs, frequency of caretaker contact, and questions assessing the animal’s ease of handling were summarised to factors, followed by the performance of confirmatory factor analyses to determine if our hypothesized factor structures fit the observed data. Next, four regression models were calculated with the dependent variables alpacas’ reaction to caretaker approach (n = 142), ease of handling during moving and leading (n = 144), ease of handling during restraint (n = 140), and absence of behavioural problems (n = 139). Predictor variables were eleven attitude factors, four frequency of contact factors, and the use of training by means of the ‘TTeam method / Camelidynamics’. We found associations between caretaker attitudes, handling practices, and animal behaviour. For instance, moving and leading was more difficult in cases of a more negative general attitude (p

Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments and important for a variety of physiological functions. They are major dietary vitamin A precursors and act as lipophilic antioxidants in a variety of tissues and are associated with important health benefits in humans and animals. All animals must acquire carotenoids from their diet, but to our knowledge, there are no studies investigating the intestinal carotenoid absorption and their blood concentrations in New World camelids. The present study aimed to assess the serum concentrations of selected carotenoids in llamas (n = 13) and alpacas (n = 27). Serum carotenoids as well as retinol (vitamin A) and α-tocopherol (vitamin E) were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and these were unable to detect any carotenoids (α- and β-carotene, α- and β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene) in the samples. The concentrations of retinol in alpacas (2.89 ± 1.13 μmol/l; mean ± SD) were higher (p = 0.024) than those found in llamas (2.05 ± 0.87 μmol/l); however, the concentrations of α-tocopherol were not significantly (p = 0.166) different (llamas: 3.98 ± 1.83 μmol/l; alpacas: 4.95 ± 2.14 μmol/l). The results show that both llamas and alpacas are not able to absorb intact carotenoids, but efficiently convert provitamin A carotenoids to retinol.

Endoparasitosis is one of the major health problems in South American camelids (SACs) often leading to massive damage of the gastric or intestinal mucosa. In ruminants this damage results in increased gastrin and pepsinogen concentrations in the peripheral blood. These values have been used as diagnostic parameters for subclinical gastrointestinal nematode infections in ruminants but have not been systemically studied in SACs. Serum pepsinogen and gastrin concentrations of 183 clinically healthy SACs with and without detectable parasitic egg excretion and the occurrence of occult blood in the faeces were determined. The median (1st/3rd quartile) of serum pepsinogen and gastrin were 1899.4 (1483.1/2749.4) ng/ml and 184.8 (121.8/340.5) pg/ml for alpacas; 1642.0 (1182.3/2608.7) ng/ml and 191.8 (142.2/287.6) pg/ml for llamas respectively. A sensitivity of 80.1 % and a specificity of 11.1 % for gastrin (cut off 402 pg/ml) and a sensitivity of 64.1 % and specificity of 88.9 % for pepsinogen with endoparasitosis (cut off 1996 ng/ml) were calculated. Based on our results, albeit on quite small numbers, determination of serum gastrin concentration does not seem to be a useful test for the detection of endoparasitic infection in SACs. In contrast, for pepsinogen a correlation was found between serum concentration and animals with and without endoparasitosis. Nevertheless further studies are necessary in order to investigate the diagnostic potential of pepsinogen serum concentration in relation to subclinical endoparasitosis.

The behaviour of new world camelids towards humans has received little research attention so far. Our aims were to assess the response of alpacas and llamas to handling, and to investigate its associations with caretaker attitudes and handling practices (i.e., the reported amount of contact to the animals at different ages). Reactions of 116 alpacas and llamas during handling by a familiar person and during a physical examination by a veterinarian were observed on 20 animal holdings. The 20 main caretakers completed or partially completed a questionnaire on their attitudes and their amount of contact to their animals. Data were analysed at farm level by means of Spearman rank correlations. Animals were generally very easy to lead by a familiar person, but a higher proportion showed fear and stress related behaviour, predominantly freezing, during the physical examinations. Associations between caretaker attitudes, amount of contact, and animal behaviour were found. For instance, if the caretakers found tactile contact more pleasant, a lower percentage of animals attempted to flee during leading (rs = -0.51, p

There are distinctive specifications for veterinary medical care of South American camelids (SACs), namely, llamas, alpacas, vicunas and guanacos. Camelids are classified as food-producing animals, but as veterinary medicinal products are often only licensed for domestic food-producing species such as horses, goats, sheep and cattle, treatment of SACs generally requires off-label use of drugs. Endoparasitism is a major health concern in camelids and can result in severe clinical diseases and economic losses. There is still a lack of work on the pharmacokinetics, safety and efficacy for most antiparasitic drugs used in SACs. Even when choosing an appropriate route of administration, several aspects must be considered such as the fact that pour-on formulations are largely ineffective in camelids due to the unique features of llama and alpaca skin and hair that result in extremely low drug bioavailability. This review focuses on the main endoparasites of the digestive tract in llamas and alpacas in Europe and pharmacotherapeutic options based on current knowledge.

Dicrocoelium dendriticum can cause severe pathological changes of the liver and bile system in camelids, and therapeutic options for treatment are limited. To address this problem, the efficacy of two different dose rates of praziquantel was investigated in llamas suffering from natural D. dendriticum infections. 53 llamas were examined under field conditions on two occasions: before and two weeks after treatment. At the beginning of the study, the animals were weighed, randomly allocated to one of the treatment groups (n = 21 each) or the control group (n = 11) and dosed orally using a praziquantel-containing paste (250 mg/ml) at a dose of either 25 mg (group 1) or 50 mg (group 2) per kg of body weight. Criteria for efficacy were faecal egg count reduction (FECR) and extensity effect. Animals treated with 25 mg/kg of body weight showed a FECR of 85%. Therapy with 50 mg/kg led to a FECR of 91%. Almost twice the number of animals of group 1 (33%) still shed eggs two weeks after treatment compared with group 2. The results of this study indicate that 50 mg/kg oral praziquantel is required for efficacious dosing and that this dose rate is safe in llamas and thus is recommended for the treatment of camelids naturally infected with D. dendriticum.

Enzootic bronchopneumonia (EBP) is an infectious, multifactorial respiratory disease of cattle. Different viruses may be involved in its pathogenesis. In this study an adapted method of endoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of caudal parts of the right cranial lung lobe was established and evaluated. The obtained bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) served as template for the detection of BRSV, BPIV-3 and BCoV specific nucleic acids by RT-PCR. BALF samples of 44 cattle affected with respiratory disease were compared to nasal swabs in their reliability to detect the causative agent(s). In 6/7 animals tested positive for BRSV, RNA of this virus was detected in the BALF, in 4 animals it could be found in the nasal swabs. In two of the three BPIV-3 positive animals, the BALF was the only material that tested positive. The most reliable samples for detection of 15 BCoV positive animals were the nasal swabs. BAL was easy to perform, it led to severe coughing in one case and moderate worsening of dyspnoe in three cases. In conclusion this study shows that BAL of the right cranial lung lobe is in many cases the only tool to detect BRSV and BPIV-3, major viral triggers of EBP.

Summary Aim and goals: The Clinic for Ruminants of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna (VUW) set out to develop a multimedia e-learning course as an addition to the elective subject „Endoscopy in Ruminants”. The course aimed to improve the transfer of knowledge, should make the doctrine more attractive and grant unlimited access to the content. As the e-learning pilot-project was asked to encourage and support following university institutions, the developmental process was documented. Apart from the question about acceptance by the students, the conditions under which such a didactically and technically demanding project was realised by a single university clinic, needed to be estimated. Material and methods: Two co-workers of the Clinic for Ruminants supplied the texts, multimedia files and the concept for all the learning objects, while the university e-learning team performed the implementation on the learning platform, the final video editing and programming of the innovative study elements. Results: Since November 2007 the attendant course offers basic knowledge of the methods as well as the endoscopic examination techniques of the upper airway, oesophagus, abdominal cavity, urinary bladder and the teat were also described in a multimedia manner. In addition to ana - tomic and physiologic basics, indications, the technique of choice, required instruments as well as expected findings are discussed. The generous use of pictures, video sequences, animations, learning games and time-unlimited access were positively evaluated by the students. Conclusions: The e-learning course improved the teaching quality of the elective subject decisively. Students and teachers profited equally and considered such a course as an ideal addition to clinical ‘hands on’ education, but not as a substitute. Such substantial e-learning projects are elaborate and should only be carried out by universities under the appropriate organisational, financial and personnel conditions.

Ultrasonography is a noninvasive technique for examining the bovine udder and teats. It is performed in the standing animal using a high frequency scanner (7.5-10.0 MHz) for examination of the teat structures (teat canal, rosette of Fuerstenberg, teat cistern, gland cistern) and a 5.0 MHz probe for examining the glandular parenchyma. Ultrasonography is a helpful tool to diagnose pathologic alterations of the udder such as inflammation, mucosal lesions, tissue proliferation, foreign bodies, milk stones, congenital changes, hematoma, and abscess. However, ultrasonography of the teat allows for the localization and demarcation of the extent of pathologic changes and therefore is an important additional diagnostic examination technique.

Objective To measure the pressure profile during caudal extradural puncture and subsequent extradural anaesthesia in cattle and to investigate the presence of extradural pressure waves. Study design Prospective experimental study. Animals Eleven cattle aged 4.1 ± 2.5 years (range 0.8 to 8.8 years), with a body weight of 613 ± 162 kg (range 302–840 kg). Methods Caudal extradural puncture was performed. To measure the extradural pressure profile, the needle was connected to an electronic pressure transducer placed at the height of the base of the tail. The pressure profile was recorded for 3 minutes following extradural puncture. Lack of resistance to injection of saline was assessed. One minute and 10 minutes after extradural anaesthesia with procaine extradural pressure was recorded. Correct extradural needle placement was assessed by clinical response. Results Three minutes after extradural puncture the median pressure was −16 (range −25 to 25) mmHg. Pressure in the extradural space 1 minute after the lack of resistance, 3 seconds after injection, and 10 minutes after injection was −15 (−24 to 33) mmHg, 8 (−17 to 84) mmHg, and −7 (−25 to 27) mmHg respectively. Pressure waves were visible after puncture, after lack of resistance, 3 seconds and 10 minutes after injection, in 4, 6, 8 and 7 cattle respectively. Pressure after testing lack of resistance, after the injection of local anaesthetic, as well as at the end of the measurement, period was significantly higher than baseline. All cattle showed clinical signs indicative of successful extradural needle placement. Conclusion and clinical relevance Extradural pressure was sub-atmospheric in 82% of the animals. Pressure waves were not consistently present before or after extradural injection, which limits their usefulness to confirm correct extradural needle placement. Extradural pressures increase significantly after injection of local anaesthetic solution. However, the clinical significance of the increase in extradural pressures was not clear.

Aim: To describe a technique of laparoscopic-assisted cystotomy in male sheep. Experimental ani- mals: five healthy male sheep aged approximately nine months (mean weight: 39.6 ± 1.51 kg). Laparoscopy was performed on sheep placed under general anaesthesia in dorsal recumbency. A 10-mm laparoscope was inserted through the right paramedian region between the xiphoid and preputial orifice. After creation of a capnoperi- toneum, grasping forceps were inserted through the left paramedian region close to the last pair of teats. The urinary bladder was elevated using grasping forceps and exteriorized through an abdominal incision. The bladder was opened extracorporeally, lavaged, closed, and then repositioned. A pigtail balloon catheter was subsequently inserted percutaneously under laparoscopic control and removed ten days later. A repeat laparoscopy was per - formed at 14 days after the first procedure to assess gross pathological changes. Laparoscopic-assisted cystotomy was successfully performed on all sheep. In one sheep, both the ventral and dorsal bladder walls were inadvert - ently perforated when placing the urinary catheter. The postoperative course was favourable: all sheep had a good appetite and showed no pathological findings during physical examination. During the repeat laparoscopy, it was observed that one sheep had developed a focal adhesion of the parietal peritoneum to the bladder catheter portal site. Laparoscopic-assisted cystotomy with catheter implantation is shown to be feasible in male sheep. This technique may be useful for removal of uroliths in patients suffering from obstructive urolithiasis opening the urinary bladder and for performing urinary diversion.

The aim of this study was to compare the results of invasive arterial blood pressure measurement using an electronic pressure transducer (EPT) or an aneroid pressure system (APS) in cattle. A catheter was placed in the auricular artery of 11 adult cattle and connected to a pressure transducer via pressure line. The aneroid system was connected to the same catheter using a three-way stop-cock in the pressure line. On five occasions three consecutive measurements were performed with the APS. The mean blood pressure values of the EPT were recorded before each individual measurement. Values from each device were compared using Passing and Bablok regression of agreement and a Bland and Altman difference plot. One hundred and forty-seven paired measurements were analysed. The average bias between the two methods (EPT vs. APS) was -1.6 mmHg (95 % confidence interval [CI]: -3.0 to -0.2 mmHg). The coefficient of correlation was 1.0084. The aneroid system showed an almost perfect agreement with the EPT. This study shows that it can be used in a clinical setting as well as under field conditions to measure arterial blood pressure in cattle.

Objective—To evaluate a laparoscopic technique for implantation of a urinary catheter in the right paramedian area in male sheep and to determine feasibility, benefits, and risks for this technique. Design—Evaluation study. Animals—6 healthy male sheep (mean ± SD body weight, 42.16 ± 11.95 kg [92.75 ± 26.29 lb]). Procedures—Each sheep was anesthetized and positioned in dorsal recumbency. A 10-mm laparoscope was inserted in the right paramedian area between the xiphoid and preputial orifice. After creation of capnoperitoneum, grasping forceps were inserted in the left paramedian area at the level of the teats and used to immobilize the urinary bladder. A pigtail balloon catheter was implanted transcutaneously in the right paramedian area between the preputial orifice and teats and directed into the urinary bladder by use of laparoscopic guidance. The catheter was removed 10 days after implantation. Fourteen days after initial surgery, a second laparoscopy was performed to evaluate pathologic changes. Results—Inadvertent insertion of the first trocar into the rumen of 1 sheep was the only intraoperative complication encountered. Laparoscopic-assisted implantation of the urinary catheter was successfully performed in all sheep. No postoperative complications were detected. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Laparoscopic-assisted implantation of a urinary catheter in the right paramedian area was successfully performed and may be a feasible method for use in sheep. This method can be considered as an alternative to tube cystotomy performed by laparotomy.

The endoscopic appearance of the oesophagus of animals infected with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) but without signs of acute mucosal disease (MD) was investigated for any common or 'early warning' lesions. Thirty-seven BVDV-infected animals [36 persistently infected (PI) and one transiently infected] were examined clinically and endoscopically for typical erosions of the oronasal and oesophageal mucosa, respectively. During oesophagoscopy, mucosal biopsies were taken and tested for pestivirus-specific nucleic acids by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The results were compared with those of RT-PCR with various sample materials (blood, nasal and conjunctival swabs and faecal samples) usually used for routine diagnosis of BVDV infection. The average age of the 36 PI animals was 13.5 months, eight animals were 24 months or older. None of the PI animals had clinically visible erosions of the oronasal mucous membranes. During oesophagoscopy, all animals showed a reddening but unexpectedly no erosions or ulcerations of the oesophageal mucosa. Although in 21 of 36 PI animals all samples tested positive, the oesophageal biopsies were with no exception constantly RT-PCR positive in contrast to all other materials investigated. Remarkably, in the transiently infected animal all samples tested negative except for the oesophageal biopsy. Hence, this infection would have been missed by conventional diagnostic sampling.

Zusammenfassung Gegenstand und Ziel: Erste Erfahrungen mit der3D-Sonographie der bovinen Milchdrüse sollten durch zusätzliches Bildmaterial von der Zitze ergänzt werden, um den diagnostischen Wert des Verfahrens abschätzen zu können. Material und Methoden: Insgesamt 16 Zitzen von Rinderpatienten der Klinik sowie vier von einem Schlachtpräparat abgetrennte Zitzen wurden mit einer linearen 10-MHz-Sonde eines Standard- Sonographiesystems untersucht (Methode I). Aus den erhaltenen Daten wurden „offline” an einer eigenständigen PC-Workstation mithilfe eines Visualisierungsprogramms dreidimensionale Bilder erzeugt. Bei den vier isolierten Zitzen erfolgte eine zusätzliche Untersuchung mit einer speziellen linearen 6–12-MHz-Sonde eines Volumensystems (Methode II). Die Volumendaten wurden „online” in „Echtzeit” zu dreidimensionalen Bildern verarbeitet. Ergebnisse: Methode I lieferte von allen Zitzen eine gut erkennbare räumliche Darstellung. Die Dreischichtigkeit der Zitzenwand war deutlich sichtbar, Zitzenzisterne, Fürstenberg'sche Rosette und Strichkanal waren plastisch wiedergegeben. Bei Methode II ließen sich die drei Schichten der Zitzenwand nur teilweise differenzieren, die Plastizität der Zitzenstrukturen war kaum zu erkennen. Schlussfolgerung: Die Untersuchungen lieferten dreidimensionale Bilder der Zitze unterschiedlicher Güte, erwartete zusätzliche Erkenntnisse blieben aus. Klinische Relevanz: Die 3D-Sonographie bietet die Möglichkeit, die morphologische Struktur eines Organs in den drei Ebenen des Raumes zu erfassen. In der Anwendung an der Zitze ist das Verfahren jedoch nicht mehr oder weniger nützlich als andere bildgebende Verfahren.

The objective was to measure teat canal length and diameter, teat diameter and teat wall thickness by ultrasonographic scanning in order to determine the differences in bovine breeds, and to study the influence of teat canal length and diameter on the occurrence of mastitis. A total of 269 lactating dairy cows of four different breeds (Brown Swiss, Simmental, Simmental crossbred with Red Pied, and Holstein-Friesians) from seven Upper Austrian dairy farms were examined. Average teat canal length of Brown Swiss animals was shortest (15·7 mm) followed by Holstein-Friesians (17·2 mm) and Simmental (18·3 mm). These differences in teat canal length were highly significant (P[les ]0·001). There was no significant difference in teat canal length between pure-bred and crossbred Simmentals. Differences of teat canal diameter between breeds were significant (P[les ]0·05). Brown Swiss animals had the largest diameters (2·0 mm) and Holstein-Friesians the smallest (1·7 mm). Differences in teat diameter between Brown Swiss, Holstein-Friesian and Simmental were also significant. No differences were found between the pure-bred and crossbred Simmental cows. The narrowest teats were in Holstein-Friesians and the widest in Simmental. Holstein-Friesians also exhibited the thinnest teat walls while the Simmental had the thickest ones. Teat canal length and diameter were correlated with udder health. Teat canals of healthy udders tended to be longer (17·4 mm) and narrower (1·8 mm) than teat canals of infected udders (15·8 mm, 2·1 mm; P[les ]0·001). A logistic regression model showed significant effects of teat canal length, teat canal diameter and lactation number on udder health.

ZusammenfassungDie Laparoskopie hat in der Veterinärmedizin bei unterschiedlichen Tierspezies einen bedeutenden Stellenwert erlangt und wird sowohl diagnostisch als auch therapeutisch eingesetzt. Beim Schaf kam es bislang hauptsächlich zur Anwendung auf gynäkologischem Gebiet. In Anlehnung an das Rind, bei dem die Laparoskopie zur Abklärung abdominaler Erkrankungen bereits erfolgreich eingesetzt wird, war es Ziel dieser Arbeit, erstmals bei Schaf und Ziege die Methodik der Laparoskopie am stehenden Tier und die dabei endoskopisch sichtbaren Organe in ihrem physiologischen Zustand zu beschreiben. Im Rahmen dieser Studie wurde die Laparoskopie in der Fossa paralumbalis sinistra an 33 Schafen und 12 Ziegen unterschiedlicher Rasse und Alters durchgeführt. Von der rechten Flanke aus erfolgte die endoskopische Untersuchung der Bauchhöhle an 31 Schafen und 16 Ziegen. Diese minimal invasive Untersuchungsmethode wurde von den Patienten gut vertragen und erwies sich zur Darstellung der im kranialen Bereich des Abdomens befindlichen Organe als gut geeignet. Die endoskopische Darstellung der Beckenorgane gelang in Abhängigkeit vom Füllungszustand des Pansens sowie der Darmteile. Dieser Umstand muss als Nachteil der Methodik der Laparoskopie am stehenden Tier gewertet werden. In der wahrheitsgetreuen Darstellung von Organoberflächen und Bewegungsabläufen ist die Laparoskopie anderen bildgebenden Verfahren überlegen. Momentan ist der Einsatz der internistischen Laparoskopie beim kleinen Wiederkäuer experimentellen Arbeiten vorbehalten. Nichtsdestotrotz darf die Indikation der unter Sicht getätigten Bioptatentnahme von Organen wie Leber, Milz, Niere, Lymphknoten und Darm nicht außer Acht gelassen werden. Die diagnostischen Möglichkeiten werden dadurch erheblich erweitert.

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of paratuberculosis in domestic ruminants and New World Camelids (NWC). Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important public health concern worldwide. The virus has been identified in several species, some of them serving as a reservoir for zoonotic HEV strains. Husbandry and breeding of llamas and alpacas have increased in Austria in recent years. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of MAP and HEV in NWC in Austria. Altogether 445 animals, originating from 78 farms were enrolled in the study. Of the animals sampled, 184 (41.35%) were llamas and 261 (58.65%) were alpacas. 443 blood samples for MAP-ELISA and 399 faecal samples for quantitative PCR (qPCR) and culture for MAP as well as for HEV detection by RT-qPCR have been collected. All of the 399 animals tested for shedding of MAP were negative by faecal solid culture. Using qPCR, 15 (3.8%) of the animals were MAP positive and 384 (96.2%) negative. Out of the 443 serum samples examined for specific antibodies against MAP by ELISA, 6 (1.4%) were positive, 1 (0.2%) was questionable and 436 (98.4%) samples were negative. All faecal samples were tested negative for HEV.

A 3-year old female goat with nephrotic syndrome was presented because of severe bilateral chemosis. The diagnosis was based on clinical findings, decreased packed cell volume, increased serum urea and creatinine, decreased serum protein and protein loss via the urinary tract. At post mortem examination, a chronic glomerulonephritis and interstitial nephritis were found. In addition to severe conjunctival oedema, ascites and subcutaneous oedema in the region of the larynx were noted. Immunohistochemistry for the detection of chlamydial antigen in the conjunctiva was negative. This is the first report of severe chemosis caused by nephrotic syndrome in a goat.

To evaluate the sonographic appearance, size, location and shape of the spleen in 60 healthy sheep.A 7.5 MHz linear scanner was used to examine the location, extent and appearance of the spleen from the left side of the sheep, in intercostal spaces (ICS) 8-12 and caudal of the last rib.The ultrasonographic appearance of the splenic parenchyma was homogeneous with a thin, smooth echogenic capsule. The spleen could be visualized in intercostal spaces 9-12 in all sheep, in intercostal space 8 in 25/60 sheep (42%) and caudal of the last rib in 24/60 sheep (40%). In intercostal spaces 8-12 and caudal of the last rib the spleen was visible in 16/60 sheep (27 %). The distance from the dorsal margin of the spleen to the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae was greatest in the 8th intercostal space: mean 19.32 (SD 2.76) cm and smallest in the 12th intercostal space: mean 6.61 (SD 1.94) cm. The dorsoventral splenic extent was greatest in the 11th intercostal space: mean 13.69 (SD 2.2) cm and smallest in the 8th intercostal space: mean 7.13 (SD 2.5) cm. The thickness of the spleen ranged from 21 (SD 9.0) mm in the 8th intercostal space to 49 (SD 7.0) mm in the 11th intercostal space. The mean vessel diameter was 1.9 (SD 0.7) mm. Spleen size did not correlate with age, body weight, or thoracic and abdominal circumference.Ultrasonography is a useful, straightforward and non-invasive method for evaluation of the spleen in sheep.These findings provide information which can be used as a reference for sonographic spleen examination and diagnosis of splenic lesions in sheep.

Twelve cows (mean age 6.4 years) and eight sheep (mean age 0.8 years) were fed silage containing 70 to 90 per cent vitamin D3-effective Trisetum flavescens for a period of 14 weeks. At the beginning and the end of this period, the animals were examined and their kidneys, abdominal aortas and heart valves were examined by ultrasonography; the animals were then slaughtered and these organs were examined histologically, and the specificity and sensitivity of the ultrasonography were calculated. After the feeding period, all the cows had a decreased body temperature and all but one had raised hair, movement disorders and difficulty in rising and lying down. Ultrasonography of the abdominal aorta had a specificity of 90 per cent and a sensitivity of 75 per cent, and ultrasonography of the heart valves had a specificity of 100 per cent and a sensitivity of 50 per cent. In the sheep, cardiac arrythmia was the only pathological finding at the end of the feeding period, and the ultrasonographic examination of the kidneys had a specificity and sensitivity of 100 per cent.

The teats of Brown Swiss and Austrian Simmental cows, divided into two groups, one milked by means of an automatic milking system, the other using a conventional milking parlour, were examined monthly by ultrasonography. Aim of the study was to compare the effects of two different milking machines upon the structures of the bovine teat canal and wall by ultrasonography and thereby evaluate ultrasonography as a research tool for visualisation of different influences on the bovine teat. Length and thickness of the teat canal and teat wall thickness were measured and analysed. During lactation, teat canal length and thickness increased in both groups, teat canal length decreased in conventional milked cows at the end of lactation. Shorter and narrower teat canals were observed in automatic milked cows. Differences between the groups in teat canal length and thickness were determined in early lactation. During lactation teat wall thickness showed a slight increase. Automatic milked cows displayed thinner teat walls than cows milked in the milking parlour. Teat morphology was influenced by the number and duration of lactations, milk yield, quarter of the udder and time and date of examination. It was concluded that the effect of the two different milking machines caused significant differences in bovine teat morphology and that ultrasonography proved to be an appropriate method for visualising influences of the milking technique on the bovine teat.

Intravenous application of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) has been identified as a promising strategy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. To generate a more applicable formulation, it was the aim of this study to develop a sustained buccal delivery system for this promising therapeutic peptide. 2-Iminothiolane was covalently bound to chitosan to improve the mucoadhesive and permeation-enhancing properties of chitosan used as drug carrier matrix. The resulting chitosan–4-thiobutylamidine conjugate was homogenized with the enzyme inhibitor and permeation mediator glutathione (gamma-Glu-Cys-Gly), Brij 35, and PACAP (formulation A). The mixture was lyophilized and compressed into flat-faced discs (18 mm in diameter). One formulation was additionally coated on one side with palm wax (formulation B). Tablets consisting of unmodified chitosan and PACAP (formulation C) or of unmodified chitosan, Brij 35, and PACAP (formulation D) served as controls. Bioavailability studies were performed in pigs by buccal administration of these test formulations. Blood samples were analyzed via an ELISA method. Formulations A and B led to an absolute bioavailability of 1%, whereas PACAP did not reach the systemic circulation when administered via formulations C and D. Moreover, in the case of formulations A and B, a continuously raised plasma level of the peptide drug being in the therapeutic range could be maintained over the whole period of application (6 h). Formulations A and B were removed by moderate force from the buccal mucosa after 6 h, whereas formulations C and D detached from the mucosa 4 h after application. The study reveals this novel mucoadhesive delivery system to be a promising approach for buccal delivery of PACAP.

Two different techniques were tested in nine calves to describe endoscopically the visible structures of the rumen and the reticulum. Ruminoscopy using an orally introduced flexible endoscope proved to be unsatisfactory, but when the endoscope was introduced through a ruminal fistula in the left flank into the dorsal and ventral ruminal sacs, the blind sacs, ruminal pillars, the atrium of the rumen, the reticulum and the reticular groove could all be displayed effectively. Indentations of the ruminal wall caused by the left kidney, the spleen and the abomasum could be seen with the endoscope as could reticulo-ruminal contractions. The technique allowed visual evaluation of the mucosal surfaces and movement of the rumen, reticulum and reticular groove. The advantages and disadvantages of ruminoscopy in bovine medicine are discussed.

The aim of this study was to describe the technique of rhinolaryngotracheobronchoscopy and oesophagoscopy in small ruminants and to report the normal endoscopic appearance of the structures of the upper respiratory tract and oesophagus. Thirty sheep and 30 goats, all clinically normal, underwent rhinolaryngotracheobronchoscopy and oesophagoscopy using a flexible endoscope (length 100 cm; diameter 4 mm). The anatomical features of the structures and the appearance of the mucosa were investigated. The degree of mucosal pigmentation varied between breeds. The appearance of the pharyngeal tonsil and the shape of the trachea in cross-section showed most individual variation. The technique was easily performed and sedation was necessary in only a few cases. No major complications were encountered. It was concluded that the procedure facilitated more accurate diagnosis and prognosis of conditions of the upper respiratory tract and oesophagus.

To compare clinical and ultrasonographic findings and assess the value of ultrasonography for evaluating the structure and condition of the teat and teat canal of sheep.The mammary glands of 30 lactating ewes were examined clinically and using ultrasonography. The distance from the teat tip to the ground was measured and diagnostic images of the body of the gland, gland cistern and teat cistern were obtained using an 8.5 MHz frequency ultrasonic transducer. A California mastitis test (CMT) and bacteriological culture were performed on milk samples collected from each half of each udder.Udder parenchyma and teats were palpably normal in 27/30 (90%) ewes. Milk clots or abnormalities were evident in 4/30 (13%) udders, lesions in the glandular parenchyma and/or teats were evident by palpation in 3/30 (10%), and pathogenic bacteria were cultured from 2/30 (7%). In both of the latter cases, mastitis was diagnosed based on clotted and discoloured appearance of milk and highly positive CMT reactions. Ultrasonographic examination in these udders revealed non-homogenous regions in the glandular tissue and alternating areas of hyperechogenic and hypoechogenic tissue. Overall, highly positive CMT reactions were evident in milk from 14/30 (47%) left halves and 9/30 (30%) right halves (p=0.02). No relationship between teat-to-ground distances and CMT results was evident (p0.05). Teat canal lengths ranged from 5.7-10.3 mm (mean=8.6; SD=1.3 mm) and the widths from 1.8-3.1 mm (mean=2.3; SD=0.4 mm). Milk sampled from ewes that had long (or = 9 mm) or wide (or = 2 mm) teat canals was highly positive to the CMT in 75% and 83% of cases, respectively.Ultrasonographic measurements of the length and width of the teat canal appeared to correlate with CMT results. The use of ultrasonography in evaluating the health of the udder of small ruminants holds promise for the future.

Based on the findings of physical examination and on laboratory findings the urinary bladder of 23 cows was examined endoscopically in order to investigate the application of cystoscopy in cattle. The endoscopic findings of all examined cows were compared with the findings of physical examination and the results of macroscopic and microscopic urinalysis and the bacteriological culture of the urine. By physical examination only 3 cows were diagnosed to have urinary tract disease, whereas all other cows were suspected of having an urinary tract disease. Bacteriological culture of the urine revealed Corynebacterium renale and Escherichiacoli infection in 18 cows, while the remaining 5 cows were negative. By cystoscopy catarrhal cystitis was diagnosed in 2 cases, haemorrhagic cystitis in 5 cases, and fibrinous-purulent and fibrinous-haemorrhagic cystitis in 13 cases. Three cows showed no pathological changes of the urinary bladder mucosa by endoscopic examination. Cystoscopy facilitates diagnosis through the direct visualisation of mucosal lesions and makes it possible to give a more accurate prog­nosis based upon the findings.

Objective—To evaluate 3-dimensional (3-D) ultrasonography of the bovine mammary gland, particularly of the teat. Animals—6 lactating cows. Procedures—Clinical and ultrasonographic examinations of mammary glands of each cow were performed. Teats were removed from a slaughtered cow and examined via ultrasonography. All scans were performed by use of a sensorless standard transducer (8.5 to 10 MHz linear array). The 2-dimensional data acquired were downloaded to an off-line system, and software was used to digitize each image and produce a 3-D block of digitized information. The selected anatomic area was displayed as a 3-D volume cube. Results—Good-quality, 3-D views of the entire mammary gland were acquired by obtaining sections through the glandular parenchyma, gland cistern, teat cistern, and teat canal. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—3-D ultrasonography allows perspective images of the mammary gland to be obtained. Many scanners routinely used in veterinary practice have the resolution required to produce satisfactory images, and the cost of refitting a standard ultrasonographic unit with 3-D software is affordable; however, the cost of a volume transducer with a positioning system and mechanical sweep strategy may be prohibitive. Three-dimensional ultrasonography is a new imaging technique that has promising applications in many fields of veterinary medicine. (Am J Vet Res 2004;65:1159–1163)

Oesophageal endoscopy in cattle has been rarely reported in the literature. It has, however, been used for many years as an aid to the diagnosis and treatment of illnesses of the upper gastrointestinal tract in small animals and horses. We have assessed the potential value of oesophagoscopy on 120 bovine patients presented at the 2nd Medical Clinic for Ruminants and Swine at the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, over a period of three years. In the course of the study, cattle exhibiting symptoms such as salivation, regurgitation or swelling in the neck region were referred for endoscopic examination. The main indication was to confirm or exclude bovine virus diarrhoea virus infection in calves, in which typical erosions were visible endoscopically on the mucosa of the oesophagus in infected animals. In addition, endoscopy proved to be useful for the diagnosis of diverticula, ruptures and inflammation of the oesophagus. Oesophagoscopy can be considered to be a valuable supplementary aid to clinical examination and, in many cases, can facilitate diagnosis.

When the isolated teat of a cow was examined with an 8.5 MHz linear array transducer in a vertical plane, the teat canal appeared as a thin, white line, bordered on each side by parallel, thick, grey-black bands. In a horizontal plane a comparable image was obtained. In a sheep, images of comparable quality were obtained with a 12 MHz transducer. Histological studies of the tissues whose removal led to the disappearance of this characteristic ultrasonographic appearance showed that it was associated with the stratified keratinised squamous epithelium with distinct papillae. The content of keratin in the stratum corneum was apparently responsible for the bright zone; the stratum lucidum was not visible, and the surrounding dark, less echoic area was associated with the stratum granulosum. Doppler echography in live animals confirmed this designation. The outer layers of the teat wall were more echogenic.

In Europe, the importance of domesticated South American Camelids (SAC), llamas ( Lama glama ) and alpacas ( Lama pacos ), has grown, especially in recent years, due to their rising popularity and the associated increase in their numbers. SACs are classified as ‘food producing animals’ within the European Union. Thus, special guidelines need to be followed in the case of pharmacological treatment. For llamas and alpacas, drugs are used in an extra-label manner, since appropriate veterinary medicinal products are only authorised for domestic food-producing species such as horses, goats, sheep or cattle, but not for camelids. Endoparasitism is a major health concern in SACs causing severe clinical diseases and economic losses. Especially, gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are common in llamas and alpacas kept in Europe. This is not surprising given that camelids often share grazing with sheep, goats and cattle, or are kept on pastures previously used for ruminants. Cross-transmission between host species can take place (Bishop and Rickard 1987) and GIN common to sheep and cattle have been documented in camelids as well (Leguia 1991, Rickard 1994, Fowler 2010). There are several classes of anthelmintics frequently used in all ruminants, including benzimidazoles, macrocyclic lactones, imidazothiazoles and hydropyrimidines. For anthelmintic drugs, very few data are published on proper dose regimen in SACs. It is difficult to estimate whether anthelmintic drugs applied at dose rates and routes suggested for horses, sheep or cattle lead to drug levels able …