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We investigate risks of exposure to workplace bullying and related mental health outcomes for men and women when being in a gender minority as opposed to working in a gender-balanced working environment or when belonging to a gender majority. Based on a social identity perspective, we tested hypotheses about the risks of bullying and differences in the increase in mental health problems in a probability sample of the Swedish workforce in a prospective design. The results showed an increased risk of bullying and an increase in mental health problems as an outcome for men when in a gender minority, however, there were no corresponding risks for women. The risks for men were most obvious for person-related negative acts and for anxiety as an outcome. Social identity may clarify why a minority might be more at risk as well as the outcome it may lead to. Deviating from the group prototype may be perceived as a threat to the group alienating the target and opening up for sanctions. The observed gender differences may further be understood using social role theory. Men in female-dominated workplaces may deviate more from the expected traditional gender role and may be more susceptible to sanctions and suffer graver consequences as a result. The outcomes may be more severe if exposed to person-related acts compared to acts related to ones work. Funding Agencies|Swedish Research Council for Health, Working life and Welfare [2019-01232]

Gender differences in self-views are relative and context-dependent and the culture itself offers a powerful context for shaping the self (c.f. Oyserman, Kemmelmeier & Coon, 2002; Vignoles, Becker, Smith, Easterbrook, Brown, et al., 2015). Although there is cross-cultural evidence that attributing agency to men and communality to women tends to be universal (Williams & Best, 1990) there are also cultural differences in women’s and men’s agentic and communal self-views. That is, there are cultural differences in the extent to which women and men internalize prevalent gender stereotypes into their self-concept. In our study we focus on 1) universality of gender differences on agentic and communality self-views and 2) two potential country level predictors of these gender differences: country’s gender equality and Power Distance levels. Given the cross-cultural universality of gender stereotypes that portray women as more communal than men, and men as more communal than women, we hypothesize that women will generally rate themselves higher on communality than men, and men will generally rate themselves higher on agency than women. People derive their self-views, in part, by internalizing qualities associated with social groups to which they belong (Tobin et al., 2010 ; Turner et al., 1987). Thus, women and men should, on average, have self-views on gender-relevant dimensions that are consistent with universal stereotypes . Up-to-date cross-cultural data suggest that gender differences on major personality dimensions are paradoxically larger in countries higher in gender equality (referred to as the Gender-Equality-Personality Paradox (GEPP); Connolly et al., 2019; Stoet & Geary, 2018) . Although this research did not examine gender differences in communal and agentic self-views, the GEPP raises an important question: Are gender differences in gendered self-views larger, or smaller, in more gender egalitarian countries? Countries ranked high in gender equality indexes are overall more egalitarian and lower power distance (PD) countries. Thus, apart from a country’s gender equality, a country’s PD might serve as another potential predictor of the magnitude of gender differences in self-views. Guimond et al. (2007) - basing their work on social comparison and self-categorization theories (Guimond et al., 2007; Guimond, 2008; Guimond, Chatard, & Kang, 2010) - suggested that different social comparison processes across cultures produce diverse patterns of gender differences in the self. People acquire self-knowledge by comparing themselves to “relevant” others, but the relevance of certain social comparison partners will differ according to a country’s PD. In high PD (and low gender equality) cultures, people are unlikely to acquire self-knowledge by comparing themselves to members of the other gender group, because such social comparisons would be viewed as inappropriate. In contrast, in low PD (and high gender equality) countries, intergender social comparisons are more appropriate and occur more frequently. As a result, we might expect to find larger gender differences on gendered self-views in low PD countries, because women and men in these countries acquire self-views through social comparison to both same- and other-gender people (rather than only same-gender people), thereby exaggerating the gender differences. In our study we will examine the universality of gender differences in agentic and communal self-views, and how these differ along two cultural variables: gender equality as measured with Global Gender Gap Report (GGGI), and PD as measured by Hofstede, using a multi-nation sample of 62 countries.

Using a pre-existing data set (Study 1; N = 1791) including participants from 10 different countries (Sweden, Spain, Japan, China, US, Russia, Chile, Mexico, Colombia, and Indonesia) and an additional sample (to be collected) from the United States (Study 2; target sample size: N = 300), this project aims to test the prediction of Social Role Theory, that the division of labor determines gender role beliefs.

Social role theory posits that occupational gender roles give rise to gender differences in behavior, such that men and women engage in qualitatively different prosocial behaviors. Therefore, we expected that women who observed an unfair situation (involving a victim and a perpetrator) would respond by demonstrating communal prosocial behavior (by compensating the victim), whereas men would respond with agentic prosocial behavior (by punishing the perpetrator). Furthermore, on the basis of social role theory, we expected that gender differences would be more pronounced in countries with a more unequal distribution of men and women in communal and agentic occupational roles. The current research tested the predictions using an economic game. Two studies consisting of samples from 10 countries (Study 1, N = 1,791) and a student sample from Germany (Study 2, N = 193) showed no support for the predicted gender differences in prosocial behavior and no systematic relationship between prosocial behavior and gender roles across countries.

Prior research indicates that boys show more interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) than girls do. Given that Aha-experiences yield positive affect and increase interest, the question arises whether there are gender differences in Aha-experiences that could help explain the gender differences in interest. Derived from social role theory, we hypothesized that men report having Aha-experiences alone, whereas women report having Aha-experiences together with others. In a retrospective survey study comprising three independent samples (N = 899), we conducted chi-square analyses to explore the relationship of gender, social context (alone; not alone), domain, and situational interest. Across all participants, we found that men were more probably alone and women more probably together with others when they had an Aha-experience. More fine-grained analyses revealed that the effect was especially pronounced when the Aha-experience increased situational interest within STEM or the personal domain. The study suggests that social context played a different role in the occurrence of Aha-experiences in men and women. We discuss the implications of our findings for STEM instruction at school.

We used qualitative and quantitative data from 70 individuals at different life stages to examine work–family management strategies adopted by men and women across 4 career–family centrality profiles: career-centric, family-centric, dual-centric, and other-centric. Participant interview responses were analyzed using QSR NVivo Version 10. We used a theoretical thematic analysis and a theory-driven coding scheme (Boyatzis, 1998) to examine the data. Data were analyzed in multiple stages carried out by 2 independent coders. We found that men of all centrality profiles, along with dual-centric and career-centric women, leaned back from family to benefit their careers (e.g., delayed having children). Men and women of all centrality profiles scaled back their work demands to benefit family, yet only women reported stepping out of their work role altogether (including career-centric and dual-centric women). This gender-role-congruent finding of women stepping out was supplemented by men, of all centrality profiles, who adopted work–family management strategies aimed at enabling their current or future wives to step out. The findings suggest that in order to fully understand gender equality in the workplace, it is important to understand the social processes occurring at home, including how men and women jointly negotiate managing the work–family interface.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine how quality of work life (QWL) influences job satisfaction and to test if gender and organizational type moderate this relationship for Generation Y (Gen-Y).Design/methodology/approachQuestionnaire data were collected from 328 Gen-Y employees in European hospitality businesses. Drawing on generational theory, social role theory and person–environment (P–E) fit theory, the authors discuss how gender and organizational types (i.e. independent vs corporate structures) moderate Gen-Y’s QWL–job satisfaction relationship.FindingsThe findings of the paper are as follows: first, gender and organizational type influence the QWL–job satisfaction relationship for Gen-Y. Second, job security does not change job satisfaction levels for female employees while high levels of job security negatively influence job satisfaction for male employees. Third, receiving appreciation at work increases job satisfaction for both women and men but, when receiving little appreciation at work, women remain more satisfied. Fourth, having opportunities to contribute to decisions positively affects Gen-Y’s job satisfaction. Fifth, having the right to say is more important in independent organizations, while the opportunity to realize an employee’s own potential leads to higher job satisfaction in corporate organizations.Originality/valueThe study contributes to the limited empirical scholarly research, adding to a deeper understanding of influencing factors of Gen-Y’s QWL–job satisfaction relationship.

Women are a growing demographic in agriculture, yet women holding positions in agricultural leadership is limited. This research sought to identify the ways women in agriculture lead by examining their leadership styles and the barriers they face as they strive to advance within their professions. The results show that women are relationship-based leaders and that there are significant barriers that inhibit women’s advancement in agriculture. Many of these barriers are related to gender bias, self-perception, and life issues such as stress and workload.

Designing female character in video game has been criticized as being sexually objectified and underrepresented in quantity (number of characters and their appearance rate in the game) and in quality (take only secondary role and inferior ability statistics given). In this paper, we analyze world leading multiple-user online battle arena game league of legends to see if previously criticized gender inequality of champions still stands and conduct a survey of 1,403 players of that game and asks how they feel about serious gender disproportion of utility support champions (all females). The result shows that league of legends still has serious gender disparity in performance parameters and there has been only a small change in 5-year span (2014-2019). The survey result tells us that game players also feel political incorrectness of such gender disproportion, but they accept such gender prototype because they have been taught as such as social role theory explains gender inequality issues.

En el presente trabajo se examina la segregación por género que existe en el profesorado en España durante el periodo 2004-2014. Para ello, en la introducción se justifica la importancia de la igualdad de género en las organizaciones. Posteriormente, en el apartado de literatura académica, se revisan los fundamentos sobre las causas que explican su existencia y se establece como hipótesis de trabajo que la discriminación debería disminuir en los últimos años. A continuación, en el apartado de metodología y métodos se expone y calcula la segregación horizontal del profesorado entre los distintos niveles de educación a través del Índice de Disimilitud, así como la segregación vertical a través del Índice del Techo de Cristal. Los resultados revelan que continúan existiendo discriminaciones por género en el profesorado, si bien a lo largo del tiempo han disminuido tanto las diferencias horizontales como verticales. Además, el análisis muestra que las discriminaciones horizontales se han corregido menos que las dificultades para ascender una vez se decide el campo educativo en el que trabajar, por lo que la concienciación hacia las mujeres-frente a las medidas legislativas- resulta un elemento clave para alcanzar mayor igualdad en el ámbito educativo In this paper we examine gender segregation in the teaching profession in Spain between 2004 and 2014. With this in mind, the introduction justifies the importance of gender equality in organisations. Subsequently, in the section on academic literature, the fundamentals are reviewed concerning the causes that explain its existence, with the working hypothesis that discrimination should diminish over the years. The section on methodology and methods subsequently sets out and calculates horizontal segregation in the teaching profession at various levels of education using the Index of Dissimilarity, and also vertical segregation using the Glass-ceiling index. The results reveal that gender discrimination still exists in the teaching profession, even though both horizontal and vertical differences have decreased over the years. Furthermore, our analysis shows that horizontal discrimination has been corrected less frequently than the difficulties encountered to move up the ladder once the educational field of work has been decided upon. Hence, awareness of women - as opposed to legislative measures - turns out to be a key element for reaching greater equality in the educational sector

In sports organizations, women are still under-represented, especially compared with their share of the general population. This holds true for management and leadership positions in particular, which could be explained by the lack of congruence between the female gender role and leader role. Therefore, the theoretical framework underpinning this study is based on role congruity theory. The research question is whether the share of women on the board and among members influences the perceived severity of organizational problems faced by sports organizations. This postulation is examined for a representative sample of sports clubs in Germany (n = 13,068). Analyses of variance are conducted with the severity of organizational problems and the share of women on the board and among club members. The results show that the share of women on the board and among members has a significant negative impact on the severity of organizational problems. Sports clubs with a high share of women on the board and among members perceive the severity of organizational problems as smaller on average. This finding is related to female leadership style, which might serve as one possible explanation. Based on these results, it is recommended that sports clubs appoint more women to management positions. This study provides empirical evidence that the often postulated increase in the share of women can be beneficial to sports organizations.

This paper discusses the social role theory, a theory of Human Behavior in the Social Environment (HBSE). Relevance of this topic is briefly discussed, as well as a definition of the theory and its historical background. Empirical research that employs this theory will be discussed.Recommendations will be made for future theory development and implications for social work education will conclude the discussion.