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Children with cerebral palsy (CP) are more prone to Otitis media with effusion (OME). We set out to determine the prevalence and factors associated with OME among patients with CPaged 2 to 18 years of age at two tertiary hospitals. Across-sectional study design was used. Diagnosis of OME was made on presence of a type B tympanogram. Of the 151 patients with CPrecruited the median age was 3 years (IQR 2.5-6.9). Majority were males (64.2%), had non-ambulatory CP (78.8%) and had breastfed for over 6 months (74.8%). Allergic rhinitis and nasal regurgitation of feeds were reported in 40.4% and 69.5% respectively. The prevalence of OME was 43.7%. Children who were breastfed for over 6 months (p value = 0.025) were less likely to have OME while presence of allergic rhinitis (p value = 0.016) and nasal regurgitation of feeds (p value = 0.035) increased the odds of presence of OME. The prevalence of OME among patients with CP is high (43.7%). Children with CP should breastfeed for more than 6 months to protect them against OME while timely management of nasal regurgitation of feeds and allergic rhinitis may minimize the risk of OME in these patients

The prevalence of childhood hearing loss (HL) is high in low and middle income countries (LMICs), with many of the affected children facing communication delays and poor opportunities for education. Despite the increased advocacy for childhood hearing screening globally, Uganda has no established childhood hearing screening programs. This study set out to introduce hearing screening services by non-specialist health workers at routine immunization clinics among children aged 0-59 months and describe the prevalence and factors associated with failed hearing screening (HS) in these children.A cross-sectional multi-center study was conducted at immunization clinics at three regional referral hospitals (RRHs). A semi structured questionnaire was used to capture data on socio-demographic, clinical factors and the two stage Transient Evoked Oto-acoustic emissions (TEOAEs) screening performed on children aged 0-59 months. A child that failed two stage screening was considered to have failed HS. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios (OR) for factors associated with failed HS.1217 children were recruited at three RRHs, with a median age of 2 months (range: 0 to 59), half were male 52% (n = 633). Overall 45 children failed two staged TEOAE screening giving a prevalence of failed HS of 3.7%, of these 27 (2.2%) and 18 (1.5%) failed unilaterally and bilaterally respectively. Children of rural residence (aOR = 2.18, p = 0.027), of low birth weight (aOR = 0.42, p = 0.045), with relatives having hearing loss (aOR = 4.64, p=0.001), who were admitted in hospital after birth (aOR = 3.72, p = 0.012) and a history of a childhood suppurative otitis media (aOR = 9.53, p = 0.015) all had increased odds of failed HS.The prevalence of failed screening is high. Implementation of childhood hearing screening by non-specialist health workers at immunization clinics using TEOAEs is possible and may be a necessary initial step in starting countrywide hearing screening in Uganda.

Background Chemical Plaque control by antimicrobial agent application can defend the teeth against caries. S. mutans is considered the main etiologic factor for caries. This was an in vitro study to compare between the efficacy of chlorhexidine diaceteate varnish, and an organoselenium sealant, to prevent S. mutans biofilm formation on human teeth. Methods Fourty five premolars extracted for orthodontic purposes were randomly divided into 3 groups of 15 teeth each. One control group and two test groups, chlorhexidine diaceteate varnish and an organoselenium sealant. The teeth were autoclaved before S. mutans biofilm was induced on to each in their respective groups. The reading T1 was taken for each tooth to assess the number of S. mutans attached in order to compare for differences in surface area among the 3 groups. The respective test materials were applied onto the teeth and biofilm induced onto them in their respective groups. The reading T2 was taken for the 2 test groups. The 3 groups were then subjected to aging for a period equivalent to 5 months before the biofilm was induced to take the reading T3 for the number of S. mutans. We used vortexing of the teeth to disrupt the biofilm at time points T1, T2 and T3. S. mutans count was then done using PCR. Results There were significantly lower S. mutans counts in the control group as compared to the chlorhexidine diacetate group at T3.There were no other statistically significant differences found. Conclusion Both organoselenium and Chlorhexidine diacetate do not inhibit S. mutans biofilm attachment onto the teeth.

Background: White Spot Lesions are a common misharp during fixed orthodontic appliance therapy which creates the need for non-compliance based prevention methods. S.mutans is considered the main etiologic factor for caries. This was an in vitro study to compare between the efficacy of chlorohexidine diaceteate varnish, and an organoselenium sealant, to prevent S.mutans biofilm formation on human teeth. Methods: Fourty five premolars extracted for orthodontic purposes were randomly divided into 3 groups of 15 teeth each. One control group and two test groups, chlorohexidine diaceteate varnish and an organoselenium sealant. The teeth were autoclaved before S. mutans biofilm was induced on to each in their respective groups. The reading T1 was taken for each tooth to assess the number of S.mutans attached in order to compare for differences in surface area among the 3 groups. The respective test materials were applied onto the teeth and biofilm induced onto them in their respective groups. The reading T2 was taken for the 2 test groups .The 3 groups were then subjected to aging for a period equivalent to 5 months before the biofilm was induced to take the reading T3 for the number of S.mutans. We used vortexing of the teeth to disrupt the biofilm at time points T1, T2 and T3. S. mutans count was then done using PCR.Results: There were significantly lower S. mutans counts in the control group as compared to the chlorhexidine diacetate group at T3.There were no other statistically significant differences found.Conclusion. Both organoselenium and Chlorhexidine diacetate do not inhibit S.mutans biofilm attachment onto the teeth.

The world's 1063 mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) live in two subpopulations at the borders of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda. The majority of mountain gorillas are human-habituated to facilitate tourism and research, which brings mountain gorillas into close proximity of people daily. Wild great apes are proven to be susceptible to human pathogens, including viruses that have caused fatal respiratory disease in mountain gorillas (e.g., human metapneumovirus1 ). This is the result of the close genetic relatedness of humans and gorillas as species, and the structural and genetic similarity in molecular receptors that allow viruses to infect cells2 . At the time of writing, there is no evidence that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), has infected a mountain gorilla. However, due to the significant potential for human-to-gorilla transmission, mountain gorilla range States took immediate steps to minimize the COVID-19 threat. These actions included a combination of preventive practice around gorillas and other great apes (e.g., mandatory face mask use, increased "social" minimum distancing from gorillas) as well as human public health measures (e.g., daily health/fever screenings, COVID-19 screening, and quarantines). Minimization of the COVID-19 threat also required socioeconomic decision-making and political will, as all gorilla tourism was suspended by late March 2020 and guidelines developed for tourism reopening. A consortium that collaborates and coordinates on mountain gorilla management and conservation, working within an intergovernmental institutional framework, took a multifaceted One Health approach to address the COVID-19 threat to mountain gorillas by developing a phased contingency plan for prevention and response. The aim of this paper is to describe how range States and partners achieved this collaborative planning effort, with intent that this real-world experience will inform similar actions at other great ape sites.

Objective Infant hearing screening enables early detection and management of hearing loss (HL) so that speech and language development delays are minimized. Parents play a critical role in successful screening and management of Infant Hearing loss (IHL) but there is limited data from resource limited settings on parental knowledge about HL and acceptability of IHL interventions. This study was aimed at exploring the maternal knowledge on the various causes of IHL and their acceptability of hearing aids as an intervention for IHL. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted at a referral hospital in southwestern Uganda. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to interview postpartum mothers to assess their knowledge on causes of IHL and acceptability of a hearing aid if prescribed. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratio (OR) for the factors associated with hearing aid refusal. Results 401 mothers with a mean age of 25 years (Standard Deviation = 5.6 years) were recruited. Half of the mothers correctly identified at least five causes of IHL. The most well-known causes were measles (63.3%) and a positive family history of HL (61.6%). 60% of mothers held at least one superstitious belief as a cause of IHL. Majority of mothers (86%) would accept a hearing aid as an IHL intervention. Mothers with a positive family history of HL (OR = 0.42, p = 0.04), in middle or higher socioeconomic class (OR = 0.45, p = 0.01) and those with more than 3 antenatal visits in their recent pregnancy (OR = 0.44, p = 0.01) were less likely to refuse a hearing aid while mothers that were either widowed or separated from their spouses (OR = 15.64, p = 0.01) were more likely to refuse a hearing aid. Conclusion Although mothers had limited knowledge on some causes of IHL, there was a high acceptability of hearing aids as an intervention for IHL. Marital status, family history of hearing loss, socioeconomic status and antenatal care attendance are factors that could be used to identify mothers that might accept or refuse a hearing aid for their infant. There is need to increase awareness about causes of hearing loss to improve knowledge as well as dispel any non-biological beliefs held by communities.

Rubella virus causes a mild disease; however, infection during the first trimester of pregnancy may lead to congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in over 80% of affected pregnancies. Vaccination is recommended and has been shown to effectively reduce CRS incidence. Uganda plans to introduce routine rubella vaccination in 2019. The World Health Organization recommends assessing the disease burden and obtaining the baseline molecular virological data before vaccine introduction. Sera collected during case‐based measles surveillance from January 2005 to July 2018 were tested for rubella immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies. Sera from confirmed rubella outbreaks from January 2012 to August 2017 were screened using real‐time reverse‐transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR); for positive samples, a region within the E1 glycoprotein coding region was amplified and sequenced. Of the 23 196 suspected measles cases serologically tested in parallel for measles and rubella, 5334 (23%) were rubella IgM‐positive of which 2710 (50.8%) cases were females with 2609 (96.3%) below 15 years of age. Rubella IgM‐positive cases were distributed throughout the country and the highest number was detected in April, August, and November. Eighteen (18%) of the 100 sera screened were real‐time RT‐PCR‐positive of which eight (44.4%) were successfully sequenced and genotypes 1G and 2B were identified. This study reports on the seroprevalence and molecular epidemiology of rubella. Increased knowledge of former and current rubella viruses circulating in Uganda will enhance efforts to monitor the impact of vaccination as Uganda moves toward control and elimination of rubella and CRS.

A species, especially when it is endangered and surrounded by anthropogenic elements, can be threatened by habitat fragmentation. Food resource availability in the species’ usual or surrogate habitats may reinforce or decrease its use of certain areas. Our objective was to to determine the influence of natural and anthropogenic variables on spatial distribution of eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). We first determined the home range of a wild chimpanzee community (hereafter Sebitoli Chimpanzee Community [SCC]) based on global positioning system (GPS) point locations (n¼2,586 direct observations and feces locations) collected between 2009 and 2013 in Sebitoli, Kibale National Park, Uganda. We described SCC home range using grid cells (2,959 cells of 100m100m) referencing environmental, spatial, and topographical variables (n¼15). We then determined diet and food species abundance within their territory (n¼63 vegetation plots and 18 months phenological survey) and predicted distribution of the 10 most foraged fruit species within SCC home range, using environmental, spatial, and topographical variables (n¼10) by applying a maximum entropy model (maxent). We then predicted chimpanzee presence as a function of environmental, spatial, and topographical variables (n¼15) using the maxent model and assessed its truthfulness with the kernel model, based only on GPS point locations. Chimpanzees in Sebitoli were mostly observed in a core area of 5.42 km2 within the 25-km2 home range. They did not avoid forest edges in contact with human populations, especially males who used larger core areas than females. Factors with the greatest positive impact on the chimpanzee distribution model (maxent area under the curve [AUC]¼0.907) were related to 3 different food resources: 1) proximity to forest edges considered as attractive because of presence of crops cultivated by local farmers; 2) proximity to a tarmac road that crosses the SCC home range with shoulders covered by attractive terrestrial herbaceous vegetation; and 3) presence of wild forest fruiting resources. The results obtained with the maxent predictive model, applied on a fine scale, were consistent with the kernel model, based on real observations. Therefore, such an approach may be recommended for surveys or action plans interested in sustainable management of wildlife in an anthropogenic environment and may be a useful tool to better understand parameters of a prefered zone for an endangered species.

Continuous urbanization over the last few years has led to the increase in impervious surfaces and stormwater runoff. Low Impact Development (LID) is currently receiving increased attention as a promising strategy for surface runoff management. To analyze the performance of LID practices for surface runoff management, a long-term hydrological modeling from 2001 to 2015 along with a cost-effectiveness analysis were carried out on a campus in Dresden, Germany. Seven LID practices and six precipitation scenarios were designed and simulated in a Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted by calculating the life-cycle costs and runoff removal rate of LID practices. Results demonstrated that the LID practices significantly contributed to surface runoff mitigation in the study area. The LID performance was primarily affected by the length of the precipitation scenarios and LID implementing schemes. The runoff removal rate of the LID practices fluctuated significantly when the rainfall scenario was shorter than 12 months. When the rainfall scenario exceeded 1 year the effects on the runoff removal rate was constant. The combination of an infiltration trench, permeable pavement, and rain barrel (IT ​+ ​PP ​+ ​RB), was the best runoff control capacity with a removal rate ranging from 23.2% to 27.4%. Whereas, the rain barrel was the most cost-effective LID option with a cost-effectiveness (C/E) ratio ranged from 0.34 to 0.41. The modeling method was improved in this study by conducting long-term hydrological simulations with different durations rather than short-term simulations with single storms. In general, the methods and results of this study provided additional improvements and guidance for decision-making process regarding the implementation of appropriate LID practices.

Despite the spread of road infrastructures throughout Africa to support regional development, industry, and tourism, few studies have examined how wild animals adapt their behavior and ecology in road-forest ecotones. Indeed, while numerous studies have demonstrated chimpanzee adaptability in anthropogenic landscapes, none have examined the effects of asphalted highways on wild chimpanzee behaviors. In a 29-month survey, we assessed the dangers posed by an asphalted road crossing the Sebitoli area of Kibale National Park (Uganda). We analyzed 122 individual chimpanzee crossings. Although the asphalted road represents a substantial threat to crossing animals (89 motorized vehicles per hour use this road and individuals of six different primate species were killed in 1 year), chimpanzees took into account this risk. More than 90% of the individuals looked right and left before and while crossing. Chimpanzees crossed in small subgroups (average 2.7 subgroups of 2.1 individuals per crossing event). Whole parties crossed more rapidly when chimpanzees were more numerous in the crossing groups. The individuals most vulnerable to the dangers of road crossing (females with dependents, immature, and severely injured individuals) crossed less frequently compared with non-vulnerable individuals (lone and healthy adolescents and adults). Moreover, healthy adult males, who were the most frequent crossing individuals, led progressions more frequently when crossing the road than when climbing or descending feeding trees. Almost 20% of the individuals that crossed paid attention to conspecifics by checking on them or waiting for them while crossing. These observations are relevant for our understanding of adaptive behavior among chimpanzees in human-impacted habitats. Further investigations are needed to better evaluate the effects of busy roads on adolescent female dispersal and on their use of territories. Mitigation measures (e.g., bridges, underpasses, reduced speed limits, speed-bumps, signposts, or police controls) should be established in this area. Am. J. Primatol. 77:890–900, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Molecular data on rubella viruses are limited in Uganda despite the importance of congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Routine rubella vaccination, while not administered currently in Uganda, is expected to begin by 2015. The World Health Organization recommends that countries without rubella vaccination programs assess the burden of rubella and CRS before starting a routine vaccination program. Uganda is already involved in integrated case-based surveillance, including laboratory testing to confirm measles and rubella, but molecular epidemiologic aspects of rubella circulation have so far not been documented in Uganda. Twenty throat swab or oral fluid samples collected from 12 districts during routine rash and fever surveillance between 2003 and 2012 were identified as rubella virus RNA positive and PCR products encompassing the region used for genotyping were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of the 20 sequences identified 19 genotype 1G viruses and 1 genotype 1E virus. Genotype-specific trees showed that the Uganda viruses belonged to specific clusters for both genotypes 1G and 1E and grouped with similar sequences from neighboring countries. Genotype 1G was predominant in Uganda. More epidemiological and molecular epidemiological data are required to determine if genotype 1E is also endemic in Uganda. The information obtained in this study will assist the immunization program in monitoring changes in circulating genotypes.

Prenatal exposure to environmental endocrine disruptors can affect development and induce irreversible abnormalities in both humans and wildlife. The northern part of Kibale National Park, a mid-altitude rainforest in western Uganda, is largely surrounded by industrial tea plantations and wildlife using this area (Sebitoli) must cope with proximity to human populations and their activities. The chimpanzees and baboons in this area raid crops (primarily maize) in neighboring gardens. Sixteen young individuals of the 66 chimpanzees monitored (25%) exhibit abnormalities including reduced nostrils, cleft lip, limb deformities, reproductive problems and hypopigmentation. Each pathology could have a congenital component, potentially exacerbated by environmental factors. In addition, at least six of 35 photographed baboons from a Sebitoli troop (17%) have similar severe nasal deformities. Our inquiries in villages and tea factories near Sebitoli revealed use of eight pesticides (glyphosate, cypermethrin, profenofos, mancozeb, metalaxyl, dimethoate, chlorpyrifos and 2,4-D amine). Chemical analysis of samples collected from 2014 to 2016 showed that mean levels of pesticides in fresh maize stems and seeds, soils, and river sediments in the vicinity of the chimpanzee territory exceed recommended limits. Notably, excess levels were found for total DDT and its metabolite pp'-DDE and for chlorpyrifos in fresh maize seeds and in fish from Sebitoli. Imidacloprid was detected in coated maize seeds planted at the edge the forest and in fish samples from the Sebitoli area, while no pesticides were detected in fish from central park areas. Since some of these pesticides are thyroid hormone disruptors, we postulate that excessive pesticide use in the Sebitoli area may contribute to facial dysplasia in chimpanzees and baboons through this endocrine pathway. Chimpanzees are considered as endangered by IUCN and besides their intrinsic value and status as closely related to humans, they have major economic value in Uganda via ecotourism. Identifying and limiting potential threats to their survival such be a conservation priority.

Background. Malaria remains endemic in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hematological changes that occur have been suggested as potential predictors of malaria. This study was aimed at evaluating the diagnostic relevance of hematological parameters in predicting malaria. Methods. A cross-sectional study involving 370 patients with signs and symptoms of malaria was conducted at Mulago Hospital, Kampala, from May, 2012 to February, 2013. Thin and thick blood films were prepared for each patient and stained with Giemsa to aid the detection of malaria parasites. Patients’ hematological parameters were determined. Results. Out of the 370 patients, 61 (16.5%) had malaria. Significant differences in the hematological parameters between P. falciparum malaria parasitemic patients and nonparasitemic patients were only observed in mean (±SD) of the differential monocyte count (10.89 ± 6.23% versus 8.98 ± 5.02%, ) and the platelet count (172.43 (± 80.41) cells/µl versus 217.82 ± (95.96) cells/µl ). The mean (±SD) values of the red blood cell indices (hemoglobin count, MCV, MCH, and MCHC), the differential neutrophil and lymphocyte counts, and the mean platelet volume (MPV) did not significantly differ between the two groups. Conclusion. Hematological changes are unreliable laboratory indicators of malaria in acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

To determine what measles virus genotype(s) circulated in Uganda after strategic interventions aimed at controlling/eliminating measles, we examined samples obtained during 2006-2009 and found only genotype B3.1, which had not been previously detected. Kenya was the likely source, but other countries cannot be excluded.

To evaluate the accuracy of a hand-held electrical conductivity meter for the detection of subclinical mastitis in an Australian dairy herd in late lactation.A hand-held conductivity meter was evaluated during late lactation in a herd of dairy cows that had a high prevalence of Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus infection. The ability of the conductivity meter to accurately discriminate between uninfected quarters and those infected with major pathogens was assessed, using bacteriology as the definitive test for infection status. Milk samples for bacteriology, and electrical conductivity measurements, were collected from 233 quarters from 59 cows. The ability of the device to identify infected and uninfected cows was also assessed. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated for a range of threshold values, using absolute values, the range of quarter values within a cow and the ratio of quarter values within a cow.Electrical conductivity was higher in infected quarters than uninfected quarters, but the degree of overlap between the populations was substantial, even when quarters were assessed as case-control pairs from the same cow. Use of the device according to the manufacturer's recommendations for diagnostic criteria of mastitic quarters had a sensitivity of 51% and a specificity of 71%. The ability of the device to correctly diagnose the infection status of cows was dependent on both the analytical method and the threshold value used. Applying the manufacturer's recommended criteria to the diagnosis of the status of cows, the sensitivity of the test was 91% and the specificity 17%.The variability between individual quarters and between cows in this study was such that the use of this device to measure the conductivity of milk was not a reliable method by which to diagnose subclinical mastitis in cows in late lactation.Interpretation of results from handheld conductivity meters when used for the diagnosis of subclinical mastitis in dairy cows needs to be made with care. In some circumstances the results obtained do not accurately reflect the bacteriological status of either individual quarters, or cows.

Despite the spread of road infrastructures throughout Africa to support regional development, industry, and tourism, few studies have examined how wild animals adapt their behavior and ecology in road-forest ecotones. Indeed, while numerous studies have demonstrated chimpanzee adaptability in anthropogenic landscapes, none have examined the effects of asphalted highways on wild chimpanzee behaviors. In a 29-month survey, we assessed the dangers posed by an asphalted road crossing the Sebitoli area of Kibale National Park (Uganda). We analyzed 122 individual chimpanzee crossings. Although the asphalted road represents a substantial threat to crossing animals (89 motorized vehicles per hour use this road and individuals of six different primate species were killed in 1 year), chimpanzees took into account this risk. More than 90% of the individuals looked right and left before and while crossing. Chimpanzees crossed in small subgroups (average 2.7 subgroups of 2.1 individuals per crossing event). Whole parties crossed more rapidly when chimpanzees were more numerous in the crossing groups. The individuals most vulnerable to the dangers of road crossing (females with dependents, immature, and severely injured individuals) crossed less frequently compared with non-vulnerable individuals (lone and healthy adolescents and adults). Moreover, healthy adult males, who were the most frequent crossing individuals, led progressions more frequently when crossing the road than when climbing or descending feeding trees. Almost 20% of the individuals that crossed paid attention to conspecifics by checking on them or waiting for them while crossing. These observations are relevant for our understanding of adaptive behavior among chimpanzees in human-impacted habitats. Further investigations are needed to better evaluate the effects of busy roads on adolescent female dispersal and on their use of territories. Mitigation measures (e.g., bridges, underpasses, reduced speed limits, speed-bumps, signposts, or police controls) should be established in this area.

ACL (avec facteur d'impact); International audience; In a rapidly changing landscape highly impacted by anthropogenic activities, the great apes are facing new challenges to coexist with humans. For chimpanzee communities inhabiting encroached territories, not bordered by rival conspecifics but by human agricultural fields, such boundaries are risky areas. To investigate the hypothesis that they use specific strategies for incursions out of the forest into maize fields to prevent the risk of detection by humans guarding their field, we carried out video recordings of chimpanzees at the edge of the forest bordered by a maize plantation in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Contrary to our expectations, large parties are engaged in crop-raids, including vulnerable individuals such as females with clinging infants. More surprisingly chimpanzees were crop-raiding during the night. They also stayed longer in the maize field and presented few signs of vigilance and anxiety during these nocturnal crop-raids. While nocturnal activities of chimpanzees have been reported during full moon periods, this is the first record of frequent and repeated nocturnal activities after twilight, in darkness. Habitat destruction may have promoted behavioural adjustments such as nocturnal exploitation of open croplands.

Molecular data on rubella viruses are limited in Uganda despite the importance of congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Routine rubella vaccination, while not administered currently in Uganda, is expected to begin by 2015. The World Health Organization recommends that countries without rubella vaccination programs assess the burden of rubella and CRS before starting a routine vaccination program. Uganda is already involved in integrated case-based surveillance, including laboratory testing to confirm measles and rubella, but molecular epidemiologic aspects of rubella circulation have so far not been documented in Uganda. Twenty throat swab or oral fluid samples collected from 12 districts during routine rash and fever surveillance between 2003 and 2012 were identified as rubella virus RNA positive and PCR products encompassing the region used for genotyping were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of the 20 sequences identified 19 genotype 1G viruses and 1 genotype 1E virus. Genotype-specific trees showed that the Uganda viruses belonged to specific clusters for both genotypes 1G and 1E and grouped with similar sequences from neighboring countries. Genotype 1G was predominant in Uganda. More epidemiological and molecular epidemiological data are required to determine if genotype 1E is also endemic in Uganda. The information obtained in this study will assist the immunization program in monitoring changes in circulating genotypes.

Les déformations des membres sont fréquentes chez les primates. La plupart résultent de piégeage, de chutes ou de conflits. Les malformations d’origine congénitale sont généralement beaucoup plus rares, atteignant à peine 1% des populations de primates humains et non humains. Cependant, certains groupes de macaques au Japon et à Hong Kong sont sévèrement affectés par des anomalies des membres. Jusqu’à 17% des individus sont atteints dans certaines troupes vivant en liberté mais approvisionnés en nourriture. Au contraire, les malformations faciales d’origine congénitale sont rarement décrites chez les primates sauvages non humains. Seules des lésions faciales d’origine bactérienne, de type pian, sont rencontrées avec une forte prévalence dans certaines populations de grands singes. Dans le parc national de Kibale, en Ouganda, notre travail d’habituation dans la zone nord de Sebitoli nous a permis d’observer des phénotypes faciaux singuliers. Huit des 80 chimpanzés (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) présentent un nez aplati avec des narines réduites ou absentes et une face concave, sans qu’aucune lésion de la peau ne soit visible. Parmi les individus atteints, on trouve des mâles et des femelles, âgés de 18 mois à 18 ans. Les caractéristiques faciales observées chez les chimpanzés évoquent le syndrome de Binder décrit chez les humains. Ce syndrome résulte d’une perturbation de la formation des structures nasales pendant l’embryogénèse. Des agents anti-vitamine K, ingérés par la mère, sont invoqués dans certains cas. L’étiologie des malformations congénitales des membres chez les macaques serait selon certains auteurs en relation avec la présence de pesticides présents dans les aliments donnés aux singes. A Sebitoli, plusieurs causes peuvent être suspectées. Dans les années 70, les exploitants forestiers ont utilisé des arboricides défoliants dans cette zone. Aujourd’hui, le territoire de la communauté de chimpanzés est entouré de plantation de thé, de maïs et de jardins vivriers dont les traitements par intrants chimiques peuvent contaminer l’environnement dont l’eau et le sol. Les chimpanzés sont exposés à la pollution du sol car ils pratiquent régulièrement la géophagie. Par ailleurs, ils pillent parfois les plantations de maïs des villageois, ingérant les épis et les tiges. Enfin, ils sont aussi exposés aux particules de combustion des carburants des véhicules circulant sur la route nationale à fort trafic qui coupe leur territoire. La pollution environnementale pourrait donc être en lien avec les malformations observées dans cette communauté. Outre le braconnage et les maladies infectieuses, les risques induits par la pollution de l’habitat font partie des conséquences sanitaires de l’anthropisation du milieu qui ne doivent pas être négligées pour la préservation des grands singes.

Les grands singes font face au récent déclin des conditions environnementales favorables à leur distribution. Parmi eux, notre plus proche parent, le chimpanzé est menacé (classé « en danger » sur la liste rouge de l’IUCN). La densité des chimpanzés (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) dans le parc national de Kibale dans l’Ouest de l’Ouganda diffère selon les communautés (1,5 à 5,1 chimpanzés/km2 respectivement à Kanyawara et Ngogo) qui sont pourtant géographiquement proches les unes des autres (N=3 communautés distantes de 9 à 17 km). Les activités anthropiques à l’intérieur de l’aire protégée (exploitation commerciale du bois dans les années 1970, route à fort trafic, essences exotiques, braconnage) et à l’extérieur de ses limites (jardins vivriers, cultures de thé) peuvent avoir un impact sur la quantité et la distribution des ressources alimentaires des chimpanzés et indirectement sur leur répartition spatiale dans le parc. Des variations des choix alimentaires des chimpanzés, en relation avec la disponibilité spatiale et temporelle de ces ressources a récemment été mises en évidence entre Kanyawara et Ngogo. Notre étude a été menée à Sebitoli (extrémité nord du parc) où la pression anthropique passée et présente est très forte. Après 4 ans d’habituation, la densité est estimée à 4,4 chimpanzés/km² sur un domaine vital de 22 km². Afin de comprendre les facteurs expliquant cette forte densité, nous avons évalué la disponibilité spatiale des ressources alimentaires par un recensement de la végétation herbacée et ligneuse dans 63 parcelles totalisant 22 hectares. La disponibilité temporelle des ressources alimentaires a été évaluée par l’analyse de 18 mois d’observations phénologiques (456 arbres sur 5 km de transects). La zone d’étude de Sebitoli ayant été particulièrement touchée par l’exploitation commerciale du bois, 36 % de la forêt sont actuellement en cours de régénération. La surface terrière des arbres fruitiers alimentaires consommés par les chimpanzés est moins importante à Kanyawara et Sebitoli qu’à Ngogo (zone du parc non exploitée commercialement par le passé). Cette étude montre que les surfaces terrières des espèces du genre Ficus, particulièrement appréciées par les chimpanzés, sont généralement plus importantes à Sebitoli qu’à Kanyawara et Ngogo. Bien que les variations temporelles de la fructification des espèces alimentaires de la communauté de chimpanzés de Sebitoli diffèrent des deux autres sites d’étude (rôle des activités anthropiques passées et présentes), elles sont sensiblement plus similaires de celles de Kanyawara que de Ngogo. Les interactions spatiales entre les éléments anthropiques et les animaux sauvages, le maintien d’espaces de surface suffisante pour assurer les migrations entre les communautés ainsi que d’autres variables environnementales sont des facteurs non mis en évidence ici qui ont rôle dans la conservation et la distribution des chimpanzés.

Objective To assess the ability of a hand-held device to differentiate between infected and noninfected bovine mammary glands according to the electrical resistance of milk, under Australian conditions. Design A cross-sectional study. Procedure Milk samples were collected from 236 quarters of 60 cows selected from a commercial dairy herd with a high prevalence of mastitis. The true infection status of these quarters was determined using bacteriology. Various methods were used in an attempt to relate the electrical resistance of milk from each quarter to the presence or absence of infection in that quarter. Results Although the electrical resistance of milk from infected quarters was generally lower than that of noninfected quarters, the overlap of readings between the two populations limited the ability of this device to indicate accurately whether a quarter was infected. The use of methods comparing the readings from each of the four quarters of a single cow did not allow the reliable detection of infected cows. Conclusion Although this device may have some practical advantages in comparison with some other methods of diagnosing subclinical mastitis, the predictive value of the method was generally poor.

With the creation of Social Networking Sites, colleges and universities across the globe have been playing catch-up with students. This new technology carries much weight as a new medium for students to build social connections and grow as members of their institutions [1]. With the aim of exploring the effect of social networking sites to the lifestyles of teachers and students in higher educational institutions, this research was conducted at four private universities in Bangladesh and one university in Uganda. A sample of one hundred teachers and one hundred students was respectively selected from four private universities in Bangladesh and one university in Uganda. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied during data analysis. The results indicated that social networking sites had several impacts on the lifestyle of students and teachers with the positive effects outweighing the negative effects. The findings confirmed that students can formulate group discussions so as to exchange their ideas, communicate to their teachers and appeal to their friends about assignments. Teachers share course related materials with their students, enables research work, creates student groups to collaborate on projects and communicate with their fellow teachers from other universities. So the principal conclusion was that the use of social networking sites should be incorporated into teachers’ and students’ lifestyles as its beneficial nature takes over its adverse side.