Search

The study analysed the effect of agricultural credits on production among smallholder crop farmers in Delta State. Multistage random sampling procedure was adopted for the selection of 210 respondents. Data were collected from primary sources through the use of structured questionnaires and analysed through the use of descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The result showed that most of the respondents were in the age range of 41years to 50 years who were married with secondary school education. Majority were engaged in farming as their primary occupation having mean family size of 8 persons and an average annual income ofN250,000. Majority obtained their credit from personal savings and cooperative societies. The major determinants of access to credit in the area were interest rate, type of enterprise, and farm size. The major constraints to obtaining credit were lending policies of credit institutions, lack of knowledge of rules and regulations and provision of collateral security. It is recommended that farmers should be encouraged to form farmers’ cooperative societies to improve access to credits.&nbsp

In the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, rainfed swidden rice cultivation remains prevalent despite efforts to encourage uptake of irrigated systems to reduce deforestation. We used agricultural surveys with a stratified sample of 171 households to investigate constraints on and productivity of irrigated and rainfed rice perceived by farmers, and actual rice yields. Irrigated rice plots had higher median yields (1.72 t/ha compared to 0.62 t/ha), but farmers perceived the type of rice cultivation they practised themselves as more productive, possibly reflecting differences in the land suitability, farmers experience, and other constraints. While some factors, such as pests and water, were mentioned to limit yields, access to fertiliser was not frequently mentioned by smallholders. Higher food security was related to irrigated rice farming, higher rice yields, and owning more livestock. Conservation initiatives need to target households with and without access to irrigable land to improve food security and reduce deforestation, as exclusively promoting a cessation of swidden agriculture is neglecting its cultural value and the scarcity of irrigable land in the region.

IntroductionChina is one of the largest consumers of agricultural antibiotics in the world. While the Chinese government has been tightening its regulations to control antimicrobial resistance (AMR) from animal sources in recent years, the extent of antimicrobial oversight and the practices of antibiotic use in animal agriculture in China has not yet been explored. This study describes the practices of antimicrobial management in eastern China and current scenarios of antibiotic use in commercial farms and smallholder backyard farming.Methods33 semi-structured interviews were conducted with government agriculture officials, veterinary drug sellers, farmers and smallholders in two contrasting areas of rural Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces, China. Interview transcripts were analyzed in NVivo12 using a thematic approach.ResultsFindings revealed that although the governance of antibiotic use has made progress, especially in controlling irrational antibiotic use in commercial farms, smallholders are under-regulated due to a lack of resources and assumptions about their marginal role as food safety governance targets. We also found that smallholders resort to human antibiotics for the treatment of backyard animals because of economic constraints and lack of access to professional veterinary services.DiscussionMore attention needs to be devoted to the local structural needs of farmers to reduce antibiotic misuse. Considering the extensive links of AMR exposure under the One Health framework, efforts to integrate smallholders in antibiotic governance are required to address the AMR burden systematically in China.

Orange-fleshed sweet potato is an important source of macro-and micronutrients for humans, particularly in resource-poor rural communities. However, sweet potato cultivation removes large amounts of nutrients from the soil. Hence, soil fertility replenishment is vital to secure long-term food production. The lack of access to fertilizers hinders the ability of farmers to supply and replenish soil nutrients, intensifying food insecurity. This study aimed at identifying locally available organic residues and agricultural practices with potential application in soil fertility management to prevent soil degradation in southern Mozambique. We conducted a survey to gather information on the farmers’ demographics and farming systems of 107 orange-fleshed sweet potato farmers. Results show that more than 70% of farmers use agroecological practices such as intercropping and crop rotation, and more than 90% indicated having residual crop biomass after harvest. Most cultivated crops, such as lettuce, beans, etc., are harvested in July-August, before the start of orange-fleshed sweet potato cultivation. Thus, there is potential for the application of crop residues as an organic amendment for orange-fleshed sweet potato cultivation. Nevertheless, farmers need support to adopt soil fertility management based on locally accessible resources, therefore ensuring extension services focused on the long-term benefits of sustainable practices are vital., African Journal of Agricultural Research, 18 (1)

Questo paper si prefigge di indentificare le caratteristiche del sistema produttivo del piccolo agricoltore in Kenya, evidenziando le sfide per la transizione sostenibile. L’ipotesi di ricerca si basa sulla letteratura propria della agro-ecology e della Eco-economy, secondo cui il piccolo agricoltore contribuisce direttamente alla food security locale e rappresenta anche un moltiplicatore di pratiche sostenibili. Questo perché il suo agire è place-based, nonché basato sulle conoscenze e le pratiche tradizionali. Il campione della ricerca è composto da 100 piccoli agricoltori dell’area di Gilgil, contea di Nakuru County, in Kenya. La ricerca ha coinvolto un team di partner internazionali, è stata sponsorizzata dal MIUR e contribuisce al dibattito sulla transizione sostenibile dei sistemi agro-alimentari. This paper identifies the features of Kenyan small-scale farmers and their production systems, highlighting the challenges of sustainability transition. Drawing on the agro-ecology and eco-economy literature, the research hypothesis is that Kenyan farmers can play a role of paramount importance in stimulating place-based sustainability practices, and assure food security outcomes, because farming occurs following indigenous, place-based tradition and knowledge. 100 small farmers in the sub-county of Gilgil in Nakuru County, Kenya have been surveyed and profiled. The survey was sponsored by MIUR (Italian Ministry of University and Research). The research aimed to contribute to the debates on the sustainability of food systems.

Oil palm (OP) supplies 40% of global vegetable oil demand, more than any other crop. Skyrocketing demand precipitates palm proliferation throughout the global tropics, where oil palm plantations (OPPs) cause habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss. Considering the potential long-term volatility of industrial OP monocultures, farmers increasingly appreciate the value of assessing the potential benefits of combining palm production with other foods and high-value crops. Local farming families, who have guided the Iniciativa Osa y Golfito (INOGO) since its inception, view OP polycultures as a welcome alternative to monocultures due to the benefits of diversifying their income, growing foods for local consumption, and not being indebted to domineering corporations. My study, part of a grander INOGO effort, quantifies and details how smallholder OP polycultures and paired, adjacent monocultures affect herpetofauna –reptile and amphibian– communities. I conducted over 400 hours of visual encounter surveys in eight pairs of family-owned OP smallholdings, half-hectare monocultures bordering half-hectare polycultures (palm intermingled with cacao, bananas, and Laurel timber trees). The 192 farm surveys were split evenly between the rainy and dry seasons, day and night, and the two aforementioned farming practices. I conducted 15 additional surveys in four local primary and secondary forest sites, to serve as a basis of comparison with the two types of OP farms. I surveyed 48 ha total in each of the three habitats: monocultures, polycultures, and forests. In OP, I recorded 2,166 amphibians across 25 species and 2,271 reptiles across 26 species, with polycultures hosting 61% of the total farm abundance. Amphibians were more species-rich in the polycultures while reptiles were more species-rich in the monocultures, entirely due to the presence of Colubrid and Dipsadid snakes. I show that polycultures significantly restore vital forest features like leaf litter, closed canopies, and increased structural heterogeneity. Consequently, species significantly associated with the polyculture experimental plots are generally endemic and highly dependent on these forest-associated microhabitats for foraging, oviposition, and shelter. Contrastingly, species associated with the monocultures, which resemble open-canopy grasslands, are snakes, disturbance-tolerant frogs, and the newly introduced “grass anole”, A. auratus (for which I document the first stable population in Costa Rica). Herpetofauna serve as an effective lens through which we can assess the impacts of anthropogenic land use changes and the benefits of biological enrichment in the case of the polycultures. It is crucial to consider specific macro and microhabitat alterations driven by land use changes to understand subsequent shifts in biodiversity. I assert that diversified OP polycultures, through inclusion of vital microhabitats via increased crop diversity, offer better support for forest-dependent herpetofauna than their monoculture counterparts. I show both smallholder practices, monocultures and polycultures, to harbor greater herpetofauna diversity than large-scale, industrial plantations previously surveyed in the same region. Nonetheless, neither type of smallholding supports nearly the same level of biodiversity as the region’s secondary and primary forests, emphasizing the importance of preserving as much intact forested land as possible. Given the rapid expansion of OPPs in the tropics, my findings are of broad significance.

Commercial smallholder production is touted as a mechanism for reducing rural poverty and transforming African agriculture. In line with this ideology, the Ghanaian state introduced two policies to provide incentives for commercial food and tree crop cultivation among smallholder farmers. Policy implementation is done in a blanket manner without considerations of gendered differences in agricultural asset distribution, such as land, and the particular sociocultural opportunities and constraints men and women face in undertaking commercial production. The paper investigates these gendered trajectories using a qualitative methodology. Results reveal the varied nature of women's constraints and related levels of vulnerability. Although native women are structurally disadvantaged in commercial food crop production, tree crop commercialisation presents an opportunity for them to reclaim dormant land rights safeguarded by their male kin. These results provide perspective for considering gender-sensitive agricultural incentives as well as potential for leveraging on the tree crop sector for attaining gender neutrality.

African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) causes a deadly disease of pigs which spread through southeast Asia in 2019. We investigated one of the first outbreaks of ASFV in Lao Peoples Democratic Republic amongst smallholder villages of Thapangtong District, Savannakhet Province. In this study, two ASFV affected villages were compared to two unaffected villages. Evidence of ASFV-like clinical signs appeared in pig herds as early as May 2019, with median epidemic days on 1 and 18 June in the two villages, respectively. Using participatory epidemiology mapping techniques, we found statistically significant spatial clustering in both outbreaks (P < 0.001). Villagers reported known risk factors for ASFV transmission - such as free-ranging management systems and wild boar access - in all four villages. The villagers reported increased pig trader activity from Vietnam before the outbreaks; however, the survey did not determine a single outbreak source. The outbreak caused substantial household financial losses with an average of 9 pigs lost to the disease, and Monte Carlo analysis estimated this to be USD 215 per household. ASFV poses a significant threat to food and financial security in smallholder communities such as Thapangtong, where 40.6% of the district's population are affected by poverty. This study shows ASFV management in the region will require increased local government resources, knowledge of informal trader activity and wild boar monitoring alongside education and support to address intra-village risk factors such as free-ranging, incorrect waste disposal and swill feeding. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

70 percent of the world and 80 percent of China’s tea production produced by smallholder farmers. However, the tea production per unit area significantly unchanged in the past decades. Understanding factors affecting the technical efficiency of smallholder tea producers is very important to maximize tea production. Aimed at examining the impact of land tenure security and land certification on smallholder tea producers’ technical efficiency, this paper employs the Cobb- Douglas Stochastic Production Frontier (CD-SPF) and Translog Stochastic Production Frontier (TL- SPF) methods for Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) with cross-sectional data collected from 161 randomly selected tea farm plot households in Ya’an city, China. We found that an 1 mu (0.067 ha) increase in the tea farm size will produce a 1.086 tea yield advantage for smallholder tea farmers. We also found that the values of input-output elasticity of land size, household income and labor decrease in turn with 0.144, 0.105 and 0.010 respectively. The results show that farm size is a more crucial input for tea production than income and labor. Moreover, we identify the determinations which enhance the technical efficiency of smallholder tea producers such as land certification, land tenure security age, education, farming experience, total farm size holding, chemical fertilizer, plot steepness and plot distance from home and find that the elimination of land tenure insecurity through land registration and certification makes a clear difference in that. We therefore recommend that tea farmland need to expand and enlarge for better production through comprehensive land consolidation program. We also suggest endorsing the land certificates of all land holders as this will help improve land tenure security, enhance technical efficiency and promote the tea production of smallholder producers.

Recent epizootic, zoonotic and pandemic outbreaks highlight the paramount importance of early detection, prevention, and mitigation of emerging and re-emerging diseases. Smallholder livestock production systems in low and middle income countries (LMICs) potentially play a role in generating and disseminating novel pathogens due to their limited biosecurity and tendency to keep multiple animal species. Adoptions of reasonable preventive, control and treatment practices are crucial for reducing the risk of disease introduction and transmission as well as the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. However, studies often report suboptimal (or inappropriate) practices among smallholders (FAO, 2010, 2008). Adoption and sustainment of a range of practices among smallholders are challenging because of the systematic constraints farmers face, referred to as a ‘vicious cycle’ (e.g. (Meemken and Bellemare, 2020)). The extent, nature and roles of these constraints are likely to be context-dependent, as suggested by many studies regarding the adoption of public health interventions (Craig et al., 2018). These studies often use a realist framework which asks “What works for whom under what circumstances, how and why?” (Pawson et al., 2005; Wong et al., 2013). This framework considers how the outcomes of interventions depend on the ways in which these interventions alter specific contexts and trigger particular mechanism(s). It is thus important to understand the interaction between context (C), mechanism (M) and outcome (O); this is referred to as CMO configuration. While recent scoping reviews catalogued various facilitators and barriers for intervention uptake among smallholders in LMICs (Acevedo et al., 2020; Baltenweck et al., 2020), little is known about how and why these factors influence the uptake. This scoping review therefore aims to systematically map knowledge in literature regarding contexts and mechanisms relevant to the uptake of animal health practices among smallholders in LMICs. While the One Health paradigm often focuses on infectious diseases, it is important to consider a wider and holistic animal health practices because livestock diseases are poorly diagnosed in LMICs and farmers may have their own understanding of disease epidemiology and controls (Chenais et al., 2021; Sultana et al., 2012). This study will identify knowledge gaps and future research priorities for the design of effective and feasible interventions for poverty reduction, biosecurity and food security.

Diversification of smallholder rice-based cropping systems has the potential to increase cropping system intensity and boost food security. However, impacts on resource use efficiencies (e.g., nutrients, energy, and labor) remain poorly understood, highlighting the need to quantify synergies and trade-offs among different sustainability indicators under on-farm conditions. In southern coastal Bangladesh, aman season rice is characterized by low inputs and low productivity. We evaluated the farm-level impacts of cropping system intensification (adding irrigated boro season rice) and diversification (adding chili, groundnut, mungbean, or lathyrus) on seven performance indicators (rice equivalent yield, energy efficiency, partial nitrogen productivity, partial potassium productivity, partial greenhouse gas footprint, benefit-cost ratio, and hired labor energy productivity) based on a comprehensive survey of 501 households. Indicators were combined into a multi-criteria performance index, and their scope for improvement was calculated by comparing an individual farmer’s performance to top-performing farmers (highest 20%). Results indicate that the baseline system (single-crop aman season rice) was the least productive, while double cropped systems increased rice equivalent yield 72–217%. Despite gains in productivity, higher cropping intensity reduced resource use efficiencies due to higher inputs of fertilizer and energy, which also increased production costs, particularly for boro season rice. However, trade-offs were smaller for diversified systems including legumes, largely owing to lower N fertilizer inputs. Aman season rice had the highest multi-criteria performance index, followed by systems with mungbean and lathyrus, indicating the latter are promising options to boost food production and profitability without compromising sustainability. Large gaps between individual and top-performing farmers existed for each indicator, suggesting significant scope for improvement. By targeting indicators contributing most to the multi-criteria performance index (partial nitrogen productivity, energy efficiency, hired labor energy productivity), results suggest further sustainability gains can be achieved through future field research studies focused on optimizing management within diversified systems.

This study examines how smallholder coffee farmers’ perceptions may influence their engagement in peer mobilization and collective action. Forty smallholder coffee farmers were interviewed in the Central Highlands region of Peru using a closed-ended instrument. The sample of smallholder farmers was achieved using purposive and snowball sampling methods. Quantitative data on farmers’ attitudes and aspirations regarding working with peers, autonomy, and external support as well as knowledge, skills, and behaviors pertinent to collective actions were collected and analyzed using descriptive and correlational procedures. Key findings indicate farmers perceive a need for external support, feel there are benefits of collective actions, and aspire to work with their peers. Based on the findings, it is recommended that practitioners and farmer group leaders focus training efforts on building smallholders’ knowledge and skills in mobilization, encourage peer association/collective action as a source of external support, and target knowledgeable, skilled and confident farmers to lead collective actions. This study has implications to bolster support for farmer-to-farmer extension and technical assistance systems and inform the identification of leader farmers.

This paper analyses the heterogeneous effects of membership of a farmer group on access to water, use of inorganic fertiliser, household incomes, and farm asset holdings. A sample of 401 irrigators in South Africa was analysed using propensity score matching. The study found that group membership had a positive effect on all four outcomes. Group members had an extra four days of access to water in a month, and applied at least 130 kg/ha more inorganic fertiliser, than non-group members. Group members had a higher household income per capita and more assets than nongroup members. However, the result revealed a heterogeneous effect among group members, with the benefits varying according to members’ socio-economic characteristics as well as internal group dynamics. The government and private donors should continue to promote the formation and organisation of farmers into groups. The role of group membership in farming outcomes can be enhanced if smaller groups are promoted. It is also crucial that strategies for promoting trust, reciprocity and group commitment be implemented for better group outcomes

Mostly for survival rather than wellbeing or profit, seasonal migration is a deeply entrenched but burdensome coping strategy among the rural poor who face seasonal livelihood insecurity, trapping many in a vicious cycle of chronic poverty and seasonal migration. Can rural agricultural development programs effectively transform these livelihoods and places of seasonal migration? Following a mixed-methods approach, including a survey of 1,860 randomly sampled households in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka in India, we assess the potential of the Wadi program, which supports integrated farming systems, to boost the farmers’ agricultural productivity and to change their deeply entrenched but burdensome coping strategy of seasonal migration. When comparing participants of the program with non-participants, we find a significant reduction in the intensity and frequency of seasonal migration, as well as spillover effects – that is, not only the participants but also whole villages profit from an enhanced local economy. We further analyze the general challenges and migration pattern of seasonal migrants, including the factors that play a role in the decision to seasonally migrate. We find that it is crucial to change the reasons underlying seasonal migration in order to enable the development from distress to selective migration. This study’s results imply the benefits to be gained from scaling up the Wadi concept and provide evidence of its positive impacts as a contribution to the science–policy dialogue about development programs., World Development Perspectives, 29, ISSN:2468-0532, ISSN:2452-2929

The breakdown of socialist agriculture in post-Soviet countries generated a large number of smallholders, of which only a minority turned to entrepreneurial agriculture. With the largest number of family farms per capita in Europe, Moldova represents an exemplary case study to explore the livelihood trajectories of these land recipients. Relying on an original smallholder survey, we analyse the role of farming in their livelihoods two decades after land privatisation. Two groups are identified: ‘peasants’, who represent a large majority, and ‘entrepreneurial’ farmers. The former tend to diversify their livelihoods off-farm; the latter turned agriculture into a proper full-time business but maintain a small-size compared to the corporate farms that succeeded the Soviet kolkhozy and sovkhozy. The two groups are found to share similar goals and values, but while ‘entrepreneurs’ pursue profit maximisation, ‘peasants’ set their working pace based on family needs. Still, some ‘peasants’ invest part of their off-farm income in agriculture to intensify production and commercialise ‘niche’ products. De-commodification, internalisation, mutual aid mechanisms, and reliance on ‘traditional markets’ emerge as strategies to preserve autonomy vis-a-vis risky modern markets, rather than a mere outcome of necessity. Despite such aspirations of most smallholders, EU-driven rural development policies require them to behave as ‘entrepreneurs’.

A sample survey of palm oil smallholders was used to examine the amount of Willingness and Ability to Pay (WATP) and the factors that determine WATP as well as the impact of WATP on the willingness to participate of smallholders in Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) certification scheme. Results reveal that the average amount of WATP accounted only half of the certification cost, implying that partial assistance is needed to support the smallholders through government subsidy. The study shows that WATP significantly affects the willingness to participate, and smallholders with higher WATP are more likely willing to participate in ISPO. Both WATP and willingness to participate are significantly determined by social norms (farmers collective impression) and awareness of the consequences of unsustainable farming practices. This result indicates the necessity to improve a positive impression on ISPO and increase awareness of the importance of following the sustainability principles of palm oil farming to increase the smallholders’ WATP, and at the same time their willingness to participate in ISPO program. It is suggested for the government to intensify the campaign of the program to a wider range of smallholders to increase their knowledge and awareness of the certification program.

Many warning signs indicate that the food security goals formulated in 2015 will not be achieved. This situation is particularly true for the African continent. After substantial progress up to 2015, the situation has hardly improved or has worsened in many respects. In addition to the rapid population growth, the increasingly frequent long dry periods or sometimes erratic rainfall have contributed to this. In addition, current production systems have dysfunctional side effects due to increasing yield optimization and specialization. Thus, besides the associated resource degradation, it also leads to a monotonous food supply and the emergence of vitamin and mineral deficiencies (hidden hunger). A meaningful way to diversify the food supply is to cultivate and market previously underutilized species. However, they are characterized by not being known and traded globally and usually having only local importance. Accordingly, they have been widely ignored in research. Increasingly, however, there is a growing realization worldwide that these plants can make an essential contribution to food and nutrition security, especially for poorer segments of the population. Moreover, they are adapted to local conditions and are often produced with less resource input. This article aims to show how these species can be better utilized to provide nutritious food through sustainable production, using the example of African indigenous vegetables. In doing so, the impact of emerging social and ecological changes in Kenya will be considered. This source is an interdisciplinary collaborative research project, Horticultural Innovation and Learning for Improved Nutrition and Livelihood in East Africa (HORTINLEA), which was carried out in Kenya from 2014 to 2018. Many different disciplines were involved in the German-African cooperation project. The results will be brought together in this article with the help of a food-sensitive value chain approach, and the experiences gained from this project will be reflected.

This study focused on the willingness to pay for extension services by smallholder oil palm farmers in Okada, Edo State, Nigeria with the objectives of examining the socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers and estimating the factors affecting the likelihood of the farmers to pay for extension services. A proportionate sampling technique was adopted to select a sample size of 150 respondents from a sample frame of 300 small holder oil palm farmers from the list of registered/contact farmers in the area at 95% confidence level. A well – structured questionnaire was administered using a Contingent Valuation Method, to obtain information that formed the data collected, ranked with Likert Scale Model and analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages and econometric model such as Probit model. The descriptive statistics examined the socioeconomic features which showed that majority (67%) of the farmers were aged 45-65 years and were therefore in their middle/old ages; 77% of them had 1-6 persons in their households. The Probit result reveals that age, marital status, household size. transportation cost and distance from extension service points were the factors negatively influencing the likelihood to pay for extension services, while educational level, farm size, farming experience, income, availability of extension services and extension visits increased the likelihood to pay for extension services. It was recommended that adequate funding by government and non-government agencies to research institutes be stepped up, while younger educated people should be encouraged to take to oil palm farming.

Most developing country's governments in Sub Sahara African countries’ including Zambia's and international organizations have committed major resources to promote Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) as a means of increasing resilience to the effects of climate change. Zambia has made significant progress in expanding CSA and is now regarded as a regional leader in this file. This research is of great importance in ascertaining adopted practices impacts among rural farming households and contributions to soil physicochemical properties (agroecosystem). The study's findings will aid in the improvement of CSA activities and have an impact on policy regarding the development of future intervention approaches. Hopefully, CSA activities in Zambia will be scaled up, resulting in more effective resource use and CSA project execution. Therefore, an inclusive study is needed to quantify the effects of CSATs on soil physicochemical properties across different (selected) technologies and household consumption among smallholder farmers. The inclusive study will conduct a statistical analysis with a holistic econometric approach. © International Journal of Ground Sediment & Water, © Sun Jichao, The website is http://ijgsw.comze.com/

Much of the sustained agricultural growth necessary for poverty reduction and sustainable development comes from adequate and expanded improved agricultural inputs use like hybrid seeds, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and inorganic fertilizer. However, smallholder farmers faced various and empirically unidentified constraints in the sustainable use of improved agricultural inputs. This study, therefore, is to examine the trends and challenges farmers faced to use improved inputs. The study has used secondary data from various databases such as FAOSTAT, World Bank, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and agricultural statistics. Simple graphical sketch, tabular and percentage analysis was employed for interpretation of the data. The study revealed that the trends in the use of various improved inputs are not based on the regular basis. The sustainable improved input intensification by smallholder farmers was influenced by various socio-economic, physical, and institutional factors. Understanding trends and challenges in input utilization provide baseline information for input intensification policies and strategies. Therefore, this review pointed out that it is possible to increase inputs intensification by smallholder farmers.

This study aims to determine the effect of production, land area, and labor on the Farmer Exchange Rate of the smallholder plantation crops subsector individually or partially and the effect of production, land area, and labor simultaneously on the Farmer Exchange Rate in North Maluku Province in 2014 -2018. The object of this study was the farmers of North Maluku Province because the agricultural sector plays an important role and contributes greatly to the economy in North Maluku Province. This study was conducted in January-May 2020. The data collected and processed in this study are data within 5 years. The population in this study was all data on the Farmer Exchange Rate, agricultural production, agricultural land area, and labor in North Maluku Province in 2014-2018. The data used in this study were secondary data obtained from the Central Agency on Statistics of North Maluku Province in 2020 and other literature related to this study. The test tool used is multiple linear regression analysis, and the analytical tool used was IBM SPSS Statistics 16.0 software. The results showed that partially production did not affect the Farmer Exchange Rate of smallholder plantation crops in North Maluku province. Partially, land areas affect the Farmer Exchange Rate of smallholder plantation crops in North Maluku province. Individually or partially, the labor did not affect the Farmer Exchange Rate of smallholder plantation crops in North Maluku province. Simultaneously or overall, production, land area, and labor affect the Farmer Exchange Rate of smallholder plantation crops in North Maluku province, it can be said that it will affect the farmer welfare.

Understanding the preferences of smallholder farmers for contracting can help in making contracts more sustainable. This paper presents the results of a choice experiment (CE) among smallholder farmers in Indonesia to assess their preferences for accepting contracts with modern retail. The CE was based on attributes of actual sales transactions in modern retail and traditional retail channels. A total of 301 vegetable smallholder farmers participated, consisting of 173 farmers participating in traditional markets and 128 in modern retail markets. A random parameter logit model estimates that, in general, smallholders do not prefer contracting with modern retail over spot market selling in traditional retail channels. Most contract attributes are perceived as negative by smallholders. A willingness-to-accept analysis shows that farmers are critical of most contract attributes, particularly those related to quality requirements. Producer organizations (POs) reduce transaction costs and increase smallholders' preference toward contracts. Contract designs that reduce transaction cost, mitigate risks for farmers, provide fair prices, and involve POs are more likely to attract smallholders to modern retail channels. [EconLit Citations: D23, O13, Q13].

Background and Aim: Consistency in producing raw milk with less variation in bulk tank milk somatic cell count (BMSCC) is important for dairy farmers as their profit is highly affected by it in the long run. Statistical process control (SPC) is widely used for monitoring and detecting variations in an industrial process. Published reports on the application of the SPC method to smallholder farm data are very limited. Thus, the purpose of this study was to assess the capability of the SPC method for monitoring the variation of BMSCC levels in milk samples collected from smallholder dairy farms. Materials and Methods: Bulk tank milk samples (n=1302) from 31 farms were collected 3 times/month for 14 consecutive months. The samples were analyzed to determine the BMSCC levels. The SPC charts, including the individual chart (I-chart) and the moving range chart (MR-chart), were created to determine the BMSCC variations, out of control points, and process signals for each farm every month. The interpretation of the SPC charts was reported to dairy cooperative authorities and veterinarians. Results: Based on a set of BMSCC values as well as their variance from SPC charts, a series of BMSCC data could be classified into different scenarios, including farms with high BMSCC values but with low variations or farms with low BMSCC values and variations. Out of control points and signals or alarms corresponding to the SPC rules, such as trend and shift signals, were observed in some of the selected farms. The information from SPC charts was used by authorities and veterinarians to communicate with dairy farmers to monitor and control BMSCC for each farm. Conclusion: This study showed that the SPC method can be used to monitor the variation of BMSCC in milk sampled from smallholder farms. Moreover, information obtained from the SPC charts can serve as a guideline for dairy farmers, dairy cooperative boards, and veterinarians to manage somatic cell counts in bulk tanks from smallholder dairy farms.

Antibiotic resistance is an emerging global health threat which is linked to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. This study was conducted to understand the knowledge and practices of smallholder pig farmers on antibiotic use and resistance in Timor-Leste. A cross-sectional study using a structured face-to-face interview was conducted in three municipalities. The interview was piloted and implemented in the local Tetun language. This study found that knowledge of antibiotics was very poor as only 12.7% (95% CI: 6.3–23.9) of farmers reported knowing what antibiotics were, and of these only one was able to correctly explain how an antibiotic worked. None of the farmers knew about antibiotic resistance and were able to explain the concept correctly. After the definition of antibiotic was explained to the farmer, only 3.6% (95% CI: 0.8–14.9) reported that their pigs had ever received antibiotics, and the majority of farmers whose pigs had not received antibiotics reported the lack of access to veterinary services. When used, antibiotics were only used for treatment with no reported use for disease prevention or growth promotion. None of the commonly used antibiotics were critically important antimicrobials. Compliance with withdrawal periods was not routinely followed. There is a need to improve access to government veterinary services for farmers in Timor-Leste, while addressing identified knowledge gaps on antibiotics and promoting prudent use practices. The findings from this study serve as baseline information to inform future interventions.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13, 9, 13A9J: 1-6

Three decades after the establishment of many smallholder oil palm plantations, large areas of oil palm will require replanting soon or are already overmatured. The process of replanting offers a unique opportunity to redesign plantations, close yield gaps, boost productivity and therefore secure income and livelihoods, but requires knowledge, inputs and financing. If postponed or done incorrectly, replanting could further exacerbate existing challenges in smallholder oil palm cultivation, both socioeconomic and environmental. In this review, we collect relevant literature on replanting of oil palm, especially in the realm of smallholder cultivation, to highlight the challenges smallholders will face when replanting. We find that access to inputs, finances and know-how differ greatly between groups of smallholders. This will likely affect smallholder’s decisions when, how and what to replant. Information on replanting, proper training, access to high-quality seedlings as well as eligibility for public replanting funds will determine the success of smallholder replanting efforts in Indonesia but are distributed unevenly currently. We finish the review with recommendations for both policy-makers and researchers on how to overcome the challenges replanting holds and capitalize on the opportunity replanting offers rather than exacerbating existing issues, EFForTS Discussion Paper Series ; 36

Agricultural mechanization service (AMS) is a critical path to achieving agricultural green transformation with smallholders as the mainstay of agricultural production. Based on the panel data of 30 Chinese provinces from 2011 to 2020, this paper measures the AGTFP using the Super-SBM model and examines the effects of different AMS supply agents on AGTFP and spatial spillover effects through the spatial Durbin model. The main conclusions are as follows: First, China’s AGTFP showed a stable growth trend, with the mean value increasing from 0.1990 in 2011 to 0.5590 in 2020. Second, the specialization (SPO) and large-scale (LSO) of AMS supply organizations have significantly positive effect on the AGTFP of the local province. However, SPO has a significantly positive effect on the AGTFP of the neighboring provinces, while LSO has the opposite effect. Third, the specialization of AMS supply individuals (SPI) has significantly negative effect on the AGTFP of the local province. In contrast, the large-scale AMS supply individuals (LSI) has the opposite effect. Furthermore, the spatial spillover effects of both are insignificant. Fourth, the spatial spillover effect of AGTFP shows asymmetry among different regions and indicates that AMS resources flow from non-main grain production and economically developed regions to main grain production and less developed regions. These findings provide helpful policy references for constructing and improving the agricultural mechanization service system and realizing the agricultural green transformation in economies as the mainstay of agricultural production.

Field-scale prediction methods that use remote sensing are significant in many global projects; however, the existing methods have several limitations. In particular, the characteristics of smallholder systems pose a unique challenge in the development of reliable prediction methods. Therefore, in this study, a fast and reproducible new approach to wheat prediction is developed by combining predictors derived from optical (Sentinel-2) and radar (Sentinel-1) sensors using a diverse set of machine learning and deep learning methods under a small dataset domain. This study takes place in the wheat belt region of Ethiopia and evaluates forty-two predictors that represent the major vegetation index categories of green, water, chlorophyll, dry biomass, and VH polarization SAR indices. The study also applies field-collected agronomic data from 165 farm fields for training and validation. According to results, compared to other methods, a combined automated machine learning (AutoML) approach with a generalized linear model (GLM) showed higher performance. AutoML, which reduces training time, delivered ten influential parameters. For the combined approach, the mean RMSE of wheat yield was from 0.84 to 0.98 ton/ha using ten predictors from the test dataset, achieving a 99% confidence interval. It also showed a correlation coefficient as high as 0.69 between the estimated yield and measured yield, and it was less sensitive to the small datasets used for model training and validation. A deep neural network with three hidden layers using the ten influential parameters was the second model. For this model, the mean RMSE of wheat yield was between 1.31 and 1.36 ton/ha on the test dataset, achieving a 99% confidence interval. This model used 55 neurons with respective values of 0.1, 0.5, and 1 × 10−4 for the hidden dropout ratio, input dropout ratio, and l2 regularization. The approaches implemented in this study are fast and reproducible and beneficial to predict yield at scale. These approaches could be adapted to predict grain yields of other cereal crops grown under smallholder systems in similar global production systems.

North China Plain (NCP) is the primary winter wheat production region in China, characterized by smallholder farming systems. Whereas the winter wheat average yield of smallholder farmers is currently low, the yield potential and limiting factors driving the current yield gap remain unclear. Therefore, increasing the wheat yield in NCP is essential for the national food security. This study monitored wheat yield, management practices and soil nutrient data in 132 farmers' fields of Xushui County, Baoding City, Hebei Province during 2014–2016. These data were analyzed using variance and path analysis to determine the yield gap and the contribution of yield components (i.e., spikes per hectare, grain number per spike and 1000-grain weight) to wheat yield. Then, the limiting factors of yield components and the optimizing strategies were identified by a boundary line approach. The results showed that the attainable potential yield for winter wheat was 10 514 kg ha−1. The yield gaps varied strongly between three yield groups (i.e., high, middle and low), which were divided by yield level and contained 44 farmers in each group, and amounted to 2493, 1636 and 814 kg ha−1, respectively. For the three yield components, only spikes per hectare was significantly different (P6.598 × 06 ha−1), the seeding rate should range from 210–300 kg ha−1, seeding date should range from 3th to 8th October, and basal N input should range from 90–180 kg ha−1. Compared to these reasonable ranges of management measures, most of the farmers' practices were not suitable, and both lower and higher levels of management existed. It is concluded that the strategies for optimizing yield components could be achieved by improving wheat seeding quality and optimizing farmers' nutrient management practices in the NCP.

Mango is an important cash crop in the tropics and subtropics. Determining the yield gap of mango and production constraints can potentially promote the sustainable development of the mango industry. In this study, boundary line analysis based on survey data from 103 smallholder farmers and a yield gap model were used to determine the yield gap and production constraints in mango plantations in the northern mountain, central valley and southern mountains regions of Tianyang County, Guangxi, China. The results indicated that the yield of mango in three representing regions of Tianyang County, Northern Mountains, Central Valley and Southern Mountains, was 18.3, 17.0 and 15.4 t ha−1 yr−1, with an explainable yield gap of 10.9, 6.1 and 14.8 t ha−1 yr−1, respectively. Fertilization management, including fertilizer N, P2O5 and K2O application rates, and planting density were the main limiting factors of mango yield in all three regions. In addition, tree age influenced mango yield in the Northern Mountains (11.1%) and Central Valley (11.7%) regions. Irrigation time influenced mango yield in the Northern Mountains (9.9%) and Southern Mountains (12.2%). Based on a scenario analysis, the predicted yield would increase by up to 50%, and fertilizer N use would be reduced by as much as approximately 20%. An improved understanding of production constraints will aid in the development of management strategy measures to increase mango yield.

The impact of carbon revenue on the profitability of agroforestry systems in comparison to monocultures is unexplored in regard to Sub-Saharan Africa. This study creates a multivariate model to evaluate the impact of carbon revenue on the profitability of agroforestry relative to the dominant monocultures in Ethiopia by using stylized plots. Yields and carbon stock changes of eight agroforestry systems were modeled based on data from agroforestry plots in the Ethiopian Central Rift Valley. According to our model, agroforestry was, on average, four times more profitable than the main monoculture systems (wheat, barley, maize, teff, sorghum, sugarcane and lentil) even when carbon revenues were excluded, primarily due to the higher prices of fruit produce. Carbon revenues were estimated using a plausible carbon price ranging from US$8/tCO2e to $40/tCO2e and carbon sequestration rates of 0.59 to 17.2 Mg C ha−1 year−1. The possibility of receiving carbon revenue increased the profitability of agroforestry by 0.5% when using the lowest utilized carbon price and carbon sequestration rate, by 20% when using the carbon price of $20 and the average carbon sequestration rate, and by 70% when using the highest price and highest sequestration rate of carbon. On average, carbon revenue increased the profitability of agroforestry by 150% in comparison to monoculture farming. We conclude that carbon income may have significant potential to motivate smallholders to convert to agroforestry when there is a proper management system, a sufficiently high carbon price and effective institutional support to mitigate the transition and transaction costs.

During September and October 2017 a highly fatal outbreak of a disease clinically indistinguishable from goat pox occurred in the villages around the Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India. This was investigated through clinical examination of affected animals, individual interviews with goat keepers and participatory village meetings. Laboratory confirmation was impractical due to the isolation and poverty of the affected community and unnecessary due to the specific nature of the clinical signs. Respondents reported not having encountered the disease previously; and it would appear that a naïve local population developed within an endemically affected region because of a trend to avoid purchasing animals from outside the village. Local grazing practices appear to have had a role in both the spread and control of the outbreak. Goats are an important form of savings and cash income to people in the locality, and the outbreak may result in considerable financial hardship for affected goat keepers. We provide a detailed description of the clinical disease and the spread of the outbreak in the locality. Awareness of the disease with reference to farming practices will provide opportunities for future disease control to enhance animal welfare and rural prosperity.

Yield enhancement through increasing efficiency in cereal production in general and in wheat production in particular could be an important way towards achieving food security. This study was aimed at estimating the levels of technical, allocative and economic efficiencies of smallholder wheat producers; and to identify factors affecting efficiency of smallholder farmers in wheat production. A two stages sampling technique was used to select 152 sample farmers to collect primary data pertaining of 2016/17 production year. Both primary and secondary data sources were used for this study. Stochastic production frontier approach and two limit Tobit model was employed. The stochastic production frontier model indicated that input variables such as mineral fertilizers, land and seed were the significant inputs to increase the quantity of wheat output. The estimated mean values of technical, allocative and economic efficiency were 78, 80 and 63% respectively, which indicate the presence of inefficiency in wheat production in the study area. A two-limit Tobit model result indicated that technical efficiency positively and significantly affected by sex of the household head, education, extension contact, off/non-farm activity and soil fertility but negatively affected by land fragmentation. Similarly, age, education, extension contacts and off/non-farm activity positively and significantly affected allocative efficiency. In addition, economic efficiency positively and significantly affected by sex, age, education, extension contact, off/non-farm activity and soil fertility. The policy measures derived from the results include: expansion of education, strengthening the existing extension services, establish and/or strengthening the existing off/non-farm activities and strengthening soil conservation practices in the study area.

The competitiveness of Indonesian tea in the global market is diminishing due to the oversupply and inability to provide agile logistics and market-oriented quality. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the current tea supply chain and analyze the logistics cost based on the activity-based costing (ABC) method in the smallholder and middleman tier to foster the sustainability of tea agribusiness. It was conducted in three main areas in Central Java Province, Indonesia, namely Batang, Pekalongan, and Banjarnegara regency. The method used was an in-depth interview and a semi-structured questionnaire to gain holistic information from 181 respondents. The results showed that material handling activity and transportation have the highest portion of the smallholder’s and middleman logistics costs, respectively. The total logistics cost of smallholders varied from case to case, ranging from IDR 821.7 to IDR 1,075.0 per kg of fresh tea leaves. Transportation activity and administration costs make up 30.8% of the total smallholder’s logistics cost. Meanwhile, the current development of the global tea market promotes policy adaptation on the commercial plantation tier and increases the cost of labor for plucking activity up to 2.5 times. Additionally, this study discovered the profit range of smallholders and middlemen. Therefore, the collaborative work of all parties is necessary to succeed in sustainable tea agribusiness.

Cocoa bean fermentation is a critical step in the formation of chocolate aroma precursors. Small-scale fermentation is needed to accommodate fermentation practice during low season and fruit scarcity. The study was conducted to address the minimum amount of wet cocoa beans required for a successful fermentation. In the trials, wet cocoa beans at different quantities, i.e. 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, and 40 kg, were incubated in separate wooden boxes for 4 days (96 hours) and turned once after 48 hours. Temperature and pH of the pulp and beans were measured every 6 hours. Dry beans were visually inspected to determine the number of grayish and purple cotyledons indicating unfermented beans. In general, smaller scale fermentations, i.e. 1 to 15 kg, resulted in similar profiles with that of standard mini-box fermentation (40 kg) in terms of temperature, pulp pH and bean pH. The 40 kg fermentation resulted in the lowest percentage of purple beans with no grayish beans, meanwhile smaller scale fermentations showed higher number of unfermented beans. The logarithmic regression indicates that as much as 1.4 kg beans producing unfermented beans of less than 20% which meets the criteria of grade 3 based on the Indonesian National Standard for cocoa bean (SNI 2323:2008/Amd1:2010). Data analysis shows that temperature below 35°C for 42 hours was associated with higher percentage of grayish and purple beans. It is concluded that cocoa bean fermentation can be carried out at least at 5 kg scale, and temperature at 42 hours could be a parameter for process monitoring.

Reliably identifying breed proportions in crossbred cattle in smallholder farms is a crucial step to improve mating decisions and optimizing management in these systems. High‐density genotype information is able to estimate higher‐order breed proportions accurately, but, are too expensive for mass application in smallholder systems. We used high‐density genotype information (777 k SNPs) of 623 crossbred cattle from India that had Holstein‐Friesian (HFX) and/or Jersey and indigenous breeds in their ancestry to select a smaller number of SNPs for breed proportion estimation. The accuracy of estimates obtained from panels with 100–500 SNP was compared to estimates based on all SNPs. Panels were selected for highest absolute allele frequency difference between exotic dairy versus indigenous Bos indicus, or between HFX versus Jersey breeds. A step‐wise pruning approach was developed showing that and increased physical distances between markers of 8.5 Mb improved breed proportion estimation compared to a standard 1 Mb distance. A panel of 500 SNPs optimized to estimate HFX versus Jersey versus indicine ancestry was able to estimate indicine breed proportions with r 2 = .991, HFX proportions with r 2 = .979 and Jersey proportions with r 2 = .949. The number of markers was a deciding factor in estimation accuracy, together with the distribution of markers across the genome.

Taiwan’s smallholder farmers are transforming into a diversified business model to respond to the transformation of economic structures and the demand for sightseeing and recreation. On that account, it is urgent and valuable at the research level to develop diversified and sustainable business strategies and models for smallholder farmers. There are two goals in this study. First of all, the study formulated the indicators of diversified and sustainable business strategies for smallholder farmers in Taiwan’s suburbs. Second, the study measured the relevant weights of these indicators from the perspectives of experts. The qualitative and quantitative Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was applied in the study, with Taiwan’s agricultural experts being our main subjects to establish the indicators and models for diversified and sustainable business strategies based on their opinions. According to the research results, there were 6 criteria and 25 sub-criteria for smallholder farmers in terms of diversified and sustainable business strategies, among which, catering services topped other criteria; food health and safety outweighed other sub-criteria of diversified and sustainable business strategies for smallholder farmers. The greatest contribution of the study is the establishment of the indicators and models of diversified and sustainable strategies for smallholder farmers in Taiwan’s suburbs and the discovery that catering service can be an important orientation of diversified and sustainable business strategies for smallholder farmers in Taiwan’s suburbs.

The Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) is a mandatory certification for palm oil plantations based on compliance with Indonesia’s regulations. Its implementation has been slow, particularly for independent smallholders that face problems of complicated requirements, limited capacity, and limited funding. Meanwhile, limited incentives are in place, either in the form of premium prices, ease of regulation, or funding. This article aims to elaborate on the role of incentives and their options in supporting the acceleration of ISPO implementation to ensure and improve the market access of smallholders. It identifies ways to develop incentives to facilitate the acceleration of ISPO certification and alternative financing sources available to support this. The method of this research is based on qualitative methodology using a literature review, policy document analysis, and in-depth interviews with informants from the government and smallholders. The analysis of this article shows that incentives are needed in the form of funding, regulatory measures, technical assistance, promotion, and rewards for good practices to provide better facilitation and financial support for the regulatory compliance in the legal, managerial and financial aspects of the ISPO. These incentives target government and smallholders. Implications for enabling these incentives include the improvement of government coordination, improved understanding of challenges faced by smallholders, and adoption of innovative approaches to manage financial resources, which are crucial to facilitate smallholders’ capacity and organizational improvement.

Crop farming in Sub-Saharan Africa is constantly confronted by extreme weather events. Researchers have been striving to develop different tools that can be used to reduce the impacts of adverse weather on agriculture. Index-based crop insurance (IBCI) has emerged to be one of the tools that could potentially hedge farmers against weather-related risks. However, IBCI is still constrained by poor product design and basis risk. This study complements the efforts to improve IBCI design by evaluating the performances of the Tropical Applications of Meteorology using SATellite data and ground-based observations (TAMSAT) and Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) in estimating rainfall at different spatial scales over the maize-growing season in a smallholder farming area in South Africa. Results show that CHIRPS outperforms TAMSAT and produces better results at 20-day and monthly time steps. The study then uses CHIRPS and a crop water requirements (CWR) model to derive IBCI thresholds and an IBCI payout model. Results of CWR modeling show that this proposed IBCI system can cover the development, mid-season, and late-season stages of maize growth in the study area. The study then uses this information to calculate the weight, trigger, exit, and tick for each of these growth stages. Although this approach is premised on the prevailing conditions in the study area, it can be applied in other areas with different growing conditions to improve IBCI design.

Background: The use of artificial insemination (AI) has great potential to improve smallholder dairy herds in Africa, however poor success and, in some situations, high costs in Kenya, have been discouraging. Effective AI requires accurate oestrus detection and the measurement of progesterone (P4) can be used to indicate oestrus as well as non-pregnancy. A cow-side progesterone lateral flow test, P4 Rapid, was evaluated as an aid to detect oestrus and non-pregnancy in Kenyan dairy cows, and assessed for association with AI efficiency. Methods: A total of 527 cows were enrolled in the study, from two counties in central and southern Kenya. Cattle in the test group (n = 308) were presented when suspected to be in oestrus and tested with the P4 Rapid (low P4 = oestrus, medium P4 = inconclusive, high P4 = not in oestrus/pregnant). Cattle with low P4 were inseminated. Cattle in the control group (n = 219) were inseminated when oestrus behaviour was detected i.e. standard practice. Results: Of the total P4 Rapid tests performed (n = 745), 1.5% were inconclusive, with the true accuracy of the test between 87-97%. Conception rates were not significantly higher in the test group (83.9%) compared to the control group (77.9%). Abortion rates were not significantly different between the control (9.5%) and test groups (8.2%). In the test group, 6.2% (19/308) cows showed a medium or high P4 level on day 0 and nine of these were subsequently found to have been already pregnant. Conclusions: The data indicated that the P4 Rapid test can be a useful tool to assist farmer decision-making in the confirmation of correct timing for AI, and importantly may avoid unnecessary inseminations in pregnant animals, thus reducing the risk of AI-induced abortion.

This study aims to evaluate the economic potential of Aceh cattle from the perspective of stock farmers, traders, and consumers as the three main players in the business. This study was conducted from June to August 2018 in Banda Aceh City and Aceh Besar District, Aceh Province, Indonesia. It used related literature and a survey method that involved interviews, observations, and questionnaires from 9 stock farmers, 23 traders, and 22 consumers to obtain data. The data presented descriptively and analyzed using SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis. The results show that the strength factors of the Aceh beef business are high selling prices, easy maintenance, the good taste of meat, and that do not shrink quickly when cooked. Meanwhile, the weakness factors are the limitation of the availability of seeds, traditional methods of assessing carcass weight during the buying and selling process, and the low productivity of the cattle compared with other breeds. The factors that become opportunities include the high demand for the beef, on both weekdays and religious holidays, the selling price tends to increase each year, and the government's commitment to increase local cattle productivity through various programs. However, there are certain threats to the development of these cattle, and they include the high price of calves, competition with other more productive breeds, the existence of other cheaper sources of animal protein, and a decrease in consumer purchasing power. The difference between the value of the strength and weakness factors was 0.12, which signified a positive result, while that between the opportunity and threat factors was −0.29, which signified a negative result. Furthermore, the coordinate value from the Cartesian field shows that the development of these cattle is in quadrant IV, which means that the prospect for development is still quite high, regardless of the threat. In conclusion, Aceh cattle have a high economic potential to be developed, which needs to be strengthened through the rebranding program while at the same time maintaining the sustainability of the Aceh cattle breed in Indonesia. Meanwhile, the government is expected to supervise and regulate the trade of these cattle to provide beef at an affordable price for consumers.

The extensive use and misuse of antibiotics in the livestock sector is one of the main drivers of the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Although small-scale farms constitute most of the livestock production in low and middle-income countries, knowledge and use of antibiotics among these populations is sparse. We conducted 201 questionnaires to estimate the use and knowledge of antibiotics by small-scale farmers located in the coastal area of the Lima region of Peru. Our results show that farmers had a small number of livestock (e.g. average of 11 cows, 7 pigs and 19 chickens per farm) and 80 % earned less than minimum wage. More than half of farmers reported at least one episode of respiratory disease, diarrhea, mastitis , skin lesion or post-parturition infection in their animals during the previous year, and 40 % of these episodes were treated with antibiotics. Farmers reported using 14 different antibiotics, most commonly oxytetracycline (31 % of episodes treated with antibiotics), penicillin (21 %), gentamicin (19 %) and trimethoprim-sulfamethazine (18 %). The third-generation cephalosporin ceftiofur was occasionally used to treat mastitis. Most farmers relied on veterinarians to prescribe (95 % of respondents) and administer (59 %) antibiotics. Only half of farmers knew what micro-organisms can be treated with antibiotics and the degree of knowledge of antibiotics (based on a 5-question metric) was positively correlated with respondents’ educational level, monthly income, knowledge of the animal health authority, farm area, number of cows and knowledge of an antiparasitic drug. In contrast, knowledge of antibiotics was not correlated with respondents’ age, gender, main occupation, knowledge of a veterinarian or household size. Potential misuse of antibiotics was reported, including 21 % of framers reporting stopping the treatment when clinical signs disappear and infrequent use of antibiotics to treat parasites or animals not eating. Our study highlights poor knowledge and potential misuse of antibiotics among small-scale farmers in coastal Peru, but high reliance on veterinarians for prescription and administration. Strengthening farmers' relationships with veterinarians and improving the diagnostic capacity of the veterinary sector could result in more judicious antibiotic use on these farms.

In Pakistan, smallholder farmers are primarily engaged in dairy farming while keeping beef animals as secondary products. Farmers experience poor production due to lack of focus on beef farming, traditional calf rearing practices and limited resources. The objective of this study was to understand the perceptions of smallholder farming households of beef production and the available resources for farmers to engage in beef fattening to increase overall farm profitability. Data was collected using a focus group discussion approach, from farming households in villages across Punjab (n = 7) and Sindh (n = 8). An integrated framework incorporating gender and value-chain considerations was used as a tool to assess farmer interest, goals and resources for rearing livestock. The data was analyzed using content analysis. The majority of farmers interested in calf fattening were more resource rich, with livestock as their primary source of income. A smaller proportion of farmers, with limited resources, also took interest in calf fattening. Women from a few villages mentioned that they were reluctant to be involved in beef businesses due to an emerging focus on childhood education as well as a lack of agency for livestock sales and control over income. Another factor contributing to farmer perceptions of beef included their enterprise focus (dairy or cropping). Overall, smallholder farmers perceived that calf fattening could be a profitable business if claves were reared properly, had adequate feed resources and good market return. Training and farm support targeting these areas is critical for calf fattening to become a profitable market strategy.

For aquaculture to continue along its current growth trajectory and contribute towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, value chains must become more inclusive. Smallholders and other local value chain actors are often constrained by circumstances and market failures in the global aquaculture industry. Integrating these actors into aquaculture value chains through inclusive business models (IBMs) is often touted as a solution to sustainable and ethical trade and business that can generate development outcomes. We reviewed 36 papers under seven business models commonly used in agriculture development to assess their application in aquaculture value chains in lower‐income countries. A global value chain (GVC) analysis is used to unpack the economic and social upgrading objectives of the different IBMs, as well as the types of relational coordination used between actors in the chain to achieve development outcomes. The extent to which these IBMs helped poor actors overcome certain barriers is evaluated with a focus on how they may ensure or be a risk to inclusiveness through the relations and upgrading opportunities evident in their make‐up. The analysis found that the majority of the models focused on economic upgrading over social upgrading. Providing opportunities for the latter is key to achieving the inclusive objectives of IBMs. Greater horizontal coordination between actors can create further opportunities for economic upgrading established under vertical coordination with other nodes upstream and downstream in a value chain. There is a need to further contextualize these models to aquaculture systems and develop clear indicators of inclusiveness.

Natural calamities and pandemics massively affect small-scale entrepreneurs. In this paper, we aim to assess how the COVID-19 pandemic affected small dairy farms in the megacity of Bengaluru, India, where they supply a high share of the milk demand. In 2020 a total of 129 farms were visited before the first lockdown (January to March) and interviewed again after the lockdown had been loosened (August to September). Questions addressed feed supply to dairy cows, milk yield and marketing, and coping strategies for lockdown impacts. Results showed that the share of farmers not feeding concentrates increased from 1% before lockdown to 7% afterward (p < 0.05), and those not offering dry forages increased from 20% to 33% (p < 0.05) due to increasing forage prices. Milk yield dropped in all surveyed farms from 3905 L before to 2861 L after lockdown (p < 0.05) due to the sale of 30% of lactating cows across the farms. Enabling farmers to better cope with shocks through feed storage and by processing their surplus milk into durable products should be prioritised by supporting institutions such as dairy cooperatives. Alternatively, insurance schemes can capacitate farmers to maintain a fresh milk supply to urban consumers in the wake of global challenges.

Rice production systems are an important source of agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Mitigation techniques, such as alternate wetting and drying, have been developed but have often not taken into consideration the constraints imposed by the practices and preferences of farmers. Since GHG mitigation benefits are not obvious at smallholder farm level, it is essential to design site-specific mitigation technologies with the participation of local stakeholders. The purpose of the present study was to adapt a participatory approach to designing and assessing mitigation practices for the dissemination of climate-friendly rice production systems. To improve the hybridization of scientific and local knowledge, a participatory five-step approach to prototyping was applied: (i) diagnosis based on a literature review and survey of stakeholders, (ii) design of mitigation practices based on laboratory trial and local knowledge (that of farmers, agricultural advisors and regional stakeholders), (iii) testing in growth chambers, (iv) testing in farmers' fields and (v) dissemination and assessment. The study was conducted in An Luong village, Red River Delta, northern Vietnam. In the study area, rice residue burning is restricted and farmers have to incorporate residue into the soil. Current water management practices, i.e. conventional continuous flooding and adopted midseason drainage, are not enough to reduce GHG emissions from added residues. Two new water management practices (pre-planting plus midseason drainage and early plus midseason drainage) were designed in participation with local stakeholders, and subsequently tested in the laboratory and in the field with the participation of local farmers. Future mitigation practices were assessed based on the yield, GHG emissions reduction and feedbacks of local stakeholders. Early plus midseason drainage proved to be an effective and feasible mitigation option for rice production in the area. Here we show that participation of local stakeholders in co-designing process help to identify the feasible GHG mitigation options, further it facilitates smallholder rice farmers to implement mitigation practices in their fields.

Small-scale agriculture is the economic, social and cultural foundation of Cambodian rural communities. Crop diversification is not widespread in these traditionally rice-producing smallholder farms. Rice monoculture has led to a decline in farm productivity and farming household income. Mungbean is emerging as a high-value opportunity for crop diversification in smallholder farms in north-west Cambodia. However, its expansion is being constrained by the low quality of varieties available to farmers. This study aims to evaluate the locally available varieties with others from Cambodia and the region by comparing the varieties’ agronomic and economic characteristics. The varieties from Cambodia, CMB-3 and CARDI-Chey, had superior agronomic and quality characteristics compared with the varieties available to farmers. This was reflected in the price estimate and income of both varieties which had the highest gross margins. Hence, the varieties currently available to farmers are unsuitable for continued cultivation in the modern mungbean production environment.

CONTEXT Climate uncertainty challenges the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Awareness of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and access to climate-smart technologies are key factors in determining the utilization of farm and land management practices that may simultaneously decrease greenhouse gas emissions, increase the adaptive capacity of farmers, and improve food security. OBJECTIVE Understanding how biophysical and socio-economic constraints affect the adoption of CSA practices and technologies plays an essential role in policy and intervention planning. Our objective was to identify these constraints among smallholder farmers in Taita Taveta County of Southeast Kenya across varying agro-ecological zones. METHODS We conducted a Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal that consisted of four mostly gender-disaggregated smallholder farmer workshops (102 participants), a household survey (65 participants), key-informant interviews (16 informants), and four transect walks. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate a dissonance in the perceived awareness of CSA practices and utilization of CSA technologies between state actors and farmers. State actors emphasize lack of awareness as a barrier to adoption, while farmers express knowledgeability regarding environmental change and climate-smart practices but are confined by limitations and restrictions posed by e.g. market mechanisms, land tenure issues, and lack of resources. These restrictions include e.g. uncertainty in product prices, lack of land ownership, scarcity of arable land, and simply lack of capital or willingness to invest. Farmers are further challenged by the emergence of new pests and human–wildlife conflicts. Our research findings are based on the contextual settings of Taita Taveta County, but the results indicate that adopting CSA practices and utilizing technologies, especially in sub-Saharan regions that are heavily based on subsistence agriculture with heterogenous agro-ecological zones, require localized and gender-responsive solutions in policy formation and planning of both agricultural extension services and development interventions that take into account the agency of the farmers. SIGNIFICANCE This study contributes to existing climate change adaptation research by increasing our understanding of how physical and socio-economic constraints can affect the adoption of new farm and land management practices, and how CSA-based intervention strategies could be restructured by local stakeholders to be more inclusive.

Ethiopian agriculture is a vulnerable sector from effects of climate variability. This study identified how strong is the effect of climate variability on smallholders‘ crop income in Central highlands and Arssi grain plough farming systems of the country. The unbalanced panel data (1994-2014) of the study collected for eight rounds analysed through fixed effect regression. The model result shows that successive increment of crop season rainfall keeping the temperature constant has negative and significant effect on households‘ crop income in the study area. The crop income responds similarly for temperature increment if the rainfall remains constant. Given this, simultaneous increment of the two climate related inputs has positive and significant effect on crop income. Other variables like flood, frost, storm, and rainfall inconsistency in the onset and cessation time affected households‘ crop income negatively and significantly. Similarly, draught power and human labour, which are critical inputs in the crop production of Ethiopian smallholders, have positive and significant effect on crop income as to the model result. Thus, this study recommended that there should be supplementing the rainfall through irrigation, check dam and other activities to have consistent water supply for the crop production that enable smallholders to collect better income. Additionally, negative effect of temperature increment should be curved through adopting long lasting strategies like afforestation.