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ObjectiveSchool-aged children in low- and middle-income countries carry the highest burden of intestinal helminth infections, such as soil-transmitted helminths (STH). STH infections have been associated with negative consequences for child physical and cognitive development and wellbeing. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the association of STH infections in schoolchildren from Gqeberha, focusing on physical activity, physical fitness, and clustered cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk score.MethodsThis cross-sectional study involved 680 schoolchildren (356 girls and 324 boys; mean age 8.19 years, SD±1.4) from disadvantaged communities in Gqeberha (formerly, Port Elizabeth), South Africa. Stool samples were collected and examined for STH infections using the Kato-Katz method. Physical activity (accelerometer) and physical fitness (grip strength, 20 m shuttle run) were measured using standard procedures. Furthermore, anthropometry, blood pressure, as well as glycated haemoglobin and lipid profile from capillary blood samples were assessed. We employed one-way ANOVAs to identify the associations of STH infections in terms of species and infection intensity with physical activity, physical fitness, and clustered CVD risk score.ResultsWe found a low STH infection prevalence (7.2%) in our study, with participants infected with at least one intestinal helminth species. In comparison to their non-infected peers, children infected with STH had lower mean grip strength scores, but higher mean VO2max estimation and higher levels of MVPA (pA. lumbricoidesinfection and MVPA was found. In contrast, lightT. trichiura-infected children had significantly lower grip strength scores compared to non-infected children. VO2max and MVPA were positively associated with lightT. trichiurainfection. No significant association between the clustered CVD risk score and infection with any STH species was evident.ConclusionsSTH-infected children had lower grip strength scores than their non-infected peers, yet, achieved higher VO2max and MVPA scores. Our study highlights that the type and intensity of STH infection is relevant in understanding the disease burden of STH infections on children’s health. The findings of our study must be interpreted cautiously due to the low infection rate, and more research is needed in samples with higher prevalence rates or case-control designs.

This study aimed to establish the prevalence of underweight, overweight and obesity, the level of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and the association thereof among vulnerable children from low-income communities in South Africa. Cross-sectional data were collected from 916 children (467 boys and 449 girls) aged 8–13 years (x̄ = 10.4 ± 1.2 years) attending eight low-income schools in Gqeberha, South Africa. Measured outcomes included accelerometery-measured physical activity (PA), weight, height and body mass index (BMI). Analysis of variance was used to determine the mean difference of total MVPA stratified by sex and BMI classification. Overall, 13% of the cohort were underweight, 19% were overweight/obese and 64% engaged in 60 min of MVPA per day. Girls presented nearly twice the odds of being overweight or obese than boys (95% CI: 1.40–2.77). Underweight to normal-weight children (boys: OR = 3.89, 95% CI: 2.18–6.93; girls: OR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.13–2.80) were more likely to engage in 60 min/day of MVPA than overweight to obese children. There is an inverse association between BMI categories and theduration of MVPA achieved per day. Special attention should be aimed at increasing awareness of healthy nutrition and promoting a variety of PA, especially among girls and children with excess weight.

Background: Little is known whether physical activity (PA)-promoting environments are equally accessible to children with divergent socioeconomic status (SES) in low-/middle-income countries. The authors, therefore, examined whether South African children from poorer versus wealthier families living in marginalized communities differed in moderate to vigorous PA and cardiorespiratory fitness. We also tested associations between family car ownership and PA/cardiorespiratory fitness. Methods: Parents/guardians of 908 children (49% girls, mean age = 8.3 [1.4] y) completed a survey on household SES. PA was assessed via 7-day accelerometry, parental and child self-reports, and cardiorespiratory fitness with the 20-m shuttle run test. Results: Based on accelerometry, most children met current moderate to vigorous PA recommendations (≥60 min/d). About 73% of the children did not engage in structured physical education lessons. Whereas children of the lowest SES quintile accumulated higher levels of device-based moderate to vigorous PA, peers from the highest SES quintile engaged in more sedentary behaviors, but self-reported higher engagement in sports, dance, and moving games after school. Families’ car ownership was associated with higher parent/self-reported leisure-time PA. Conclusions: A deeper understanding is needed about why wealthier children are more sedentary, but simultaneously engage in more leisure-time PA. The fact that access to structural physical education is denied to most children is critical and needs to be addressed.

Backgound The disease profile of low- to middle-income countries is moving towards one seen in Westernised countries, where deaths are mainly attributed to chronic diseases. Children develop risk factors at a young age predisposing them to noncommunicable diseases in adulthood. Most of the risk factors are preventable through healthy lifestyles. Results from South Africa (SA) show that many children, particularly from marginalized communities, do not achieve the minimal requirements of physical activity (PA). Thus, more emphasis needs to be placed on primary prevention strategies, such as incorporating health promotion interventions within established educational and workplace structures. Primary schools present unique opportunities for holistic prevention interventions. Methods Using an ecosystem approach, an interprofessional team of PA researchers, public health specialists and digital innovators, together with partners from the ministry of education and ministry of health in SA, was set up to map and tackle the role of physical education (PE) in the SA school system. Experts identified actionable changes at the school, teacher and policy levels. First, a comprehensive health intervention was developed and implemented in primary schools in low resourced settings in the Eastern Cape of SA. The intervention was followed to learn and adapt. Finally, changes in the educational system will be scaled-up and sustained through governmental institutionalization. Results In 1994 PE lost its stand-alone subject status and became part of Life Orientation. Ever since, non-specialist teachers lack the confidence and understanding to adequately teach the subject. The interdisciplinary team developed ‘the KaziBantu model (Healthy Schools for Healthy Communities)’, to promote PA and healthy lifestyles in public primary schools through two complementary programs: KaziKidz, a PE toolkit for schoolchildren, and KaziHealth, a workplace health intervention program for teachers. Furthermore, Short Learning Programs have been developed for continued professional development of life orientation teachers, thereby introducing lasting changes within the educational system. Discussion/Conclusion PE and health literacy are oftentimes neglected in the SA curriculum, especially in marginalized areas. System-wide changes initiated and sustained through local ownership are critical to ensure long-lasting impact. Our multilateral intervention aimed to achieve this to offer children and teachers a quality education.

Background: Over the past decades, childhood overweight has increased in many African countries. We examined the relationship between sedentary behaviour, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and body composition in South African primary schoolchildren living in peri-urban settings. Methods: MVPA was measured via 7-day accelerometry and body composition via bioelectrical impedance analysis in 1090 learners (49.2% girls, Mage = 8.3 ± 1.4 years). The relationships between MVPA and sedentary behaviour with the various body composition indicators (body fat and fat-free mass [total, truncal, arms, and legs], bone mass, muscle mass, and body water) were tested with mixed linear regressions. Results: The prevalence of overweight and obesity was 9.8% and 6.6%, respectively; 77.1% of the children engaged in ≥60 min of MVPA/day. Girls were more likely to be overweight/obese, to accumulate less than 60 min of MVPA/day, and had significantly higher relative body fat than boys (ps < 0.001). Lower MVPA was associated with a higher likelihood of being overweight/obese, higher relative body fat, and lower relative fat-free mass, bone mass, muscle mass, and body water (ps < 0.001). For lower sedentary behaviour, the associations with body composition pointed in the opposite direction. Conclusions: In this South African setting, girls are a particularly relevant target group for future physical activity interventions to prevent overweight/obesity-related non-communicable diseases in later life.

Hypertension in children has increased globally over the past 20 years; yet, little is known about this issue among disadvantaged communities from low- and middle-income countries. Age-, sex-, and height-adjusted normative tables are the "gold" standard for the diagnosis and estimation of pediatric hypertension worldwide, but it is unclear whether the use of international standards is appropriate for all contexts. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare different international references to identify hypertension among South African school-aged children from disadvantaged communities.Blood pressure, weight, and height were measured in a cohort of 897 children aged 8-16 years from eight peri-urban schools in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. Cross-sectional prevalence of hypertension was calculated according to American, German, and global normative tables, as well as pseudo-normative data from the own study population. Isolated systolic hypertension and body mass index (BMI) were considered markers for cardiovascular disease. Multinomial logistic regression was used to compare the likelihood of blood pressure categorization with increasing BMI levels.Hypertension prevalence ranged from 11.4% with the pseudo-normative study tables to 28.8% based on the German reference. Global guidelines showed the highest agreement both among international standards (92.5% with American guidelines) and with the study reference (72.5%). While the global and the American references presented higher systolic over diastolic hypertension rates (23.6 vs. 10.6% and 24.2 vs. 14.7%, respectively), the American guidelines predicted the highest increased risk for hypertension stage 2 [odds ratio, 1.72 (95% confidence interval: 1.43-2.07)] with raising levels of BMI.Our results support the heterogeneity of blood pressure estimates found in the South African literature, and highlight the underrepresentation of African children in international guidelines. We call for caution in the use of international standards in different contexts and advocate for the development of normative tables that are representative of the South African pediatric population necessary to ensure an accurate identification of hypertension both from the clinical and epidemiological perspective.

ObjectivesMuscular strength represents a specific component of health-related fitness. Hand grip strength (HGS) is used as an indicator for musculoskeletal fitness in children. HGS can also be used as a marker of cardiometabolic risk, but most available HGS data are derived from Western high-income countries. Therefore, this study examines whether HGS is associated with body composition and markers of cardiovascular risk in children from three sub-Saharan African countries.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingPublic primary schools (grade 1–4) in Taabo (Côte d’Ivoire), Gqeberha (South Africa) and Ifakara (Tanzania).ParticipantsData from 467 children from Côte d’Ivoire (210 boys, 257 girls), 864 children from South Africa (429 boys, 435 girls) and 695 children from Tanzania (334 boys, 361 girls) were analysed.Primary and secondary outcome measuresBody composition (assessed via bioelectrical impedance analysis) was the primary outcome. Cardiovascular risk markers were considered as secondary outcome. Blood pressure was measured with an oscillometric monitor, and blood markers (cholesterol, triglycerides, glycated haemoglobin) via Afinion point-of-care testing. HGS (independent variable) was assessed with a hydraulic hand dynamometer. Inferential statistics are based on mixed linear regressions and analyses of covariance.ResultsAcross all study sites, higher HGS was associated with lower body fat, higher muscle mass and higher fat-free mass (pConclusionsHGS assessment is popular due to its simplicity, feasibility, practical utility and high reliability of measurements. This is one of the first HGS studies with children from sub-Saharan Africa. There is a great need for further studies to examine whether our findings can be replicated, to develop reference values for African children, to establish links to other health outcomes, and to explore whether HGS is associated with later development of cardiovascular risk markers.Trial registration numberISRCTN29534081.

Executive functions (EFs) are essential for optimal academic development. Appropriate nutrition and physical activity (PA) have been shown to facilitate optimal cognitive development. Therefore, this study examined whether a 12-week school-based PA and multi-micronutrient supplementation (MMNS) intervention would improve cognitive and academic performance. A cluster-randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted. Children from four schools located in a peri-urban area of South Africa were randomly assigned to (i) PA + MMNS, (ii) PA + placebo, (iii) MMNS or (iv) placebo. Information processing and inhibitory control were measured with a computerized Flanker task. End-of-year results provided insight into academic achievement. Anthropometric measures were used to determine nutritional status. Data were analyzed with linear mixed-models, adjusting for baseline scores, school classes and age; 932 children (458 girls (49.1%), Mage (mean age) = 8.42 ± 1.94 years) completed baseline and post-intervention assessments. Cognitive performance improved among all four groups, with no significant group × time effects. For academic achievement, there was no significant interaction effect between the combined intervention group and placebo. We encourage future studies in this neglected area in order to determine the most optimal design of school-based nutrition and PA programs to enhance overall cognitive performance.

Objective Risk factors for chronic diseases such as insufficient physical activity (PA), overweight or hypertension are getting more predominant among children. While school-based interventions are promising preventive strategies, evidence of their long-term effectiveness, especially among vulnerable populations is scarce. KaziKidz is a physical education intervention that promotes healthy and active lifestyles among children from low-income communities. We aim at assessing the short- and long-term effects of KaziKidz on cardiovascular risk factors in high-risk children from disadvantaged communities. Methods The intervention was tested in a cluster-randomized controlled trial between January and October 2019 in eight primary schools in South Africa. Children with adverse cardiovascular profiles were defined as presenting at least one risk factor for (1) overweight, (2) elevated blood pressure, (3) glycaemia, and/or (4) cholesterolemia. After their identification, high-risk children were re-assessed 2-years post-intervention. Study outcomes include accelerometry-measured PA (MVPA), body-mass-index (BMI), mean arterial pressure (MAP), glucose (HbA1c), and lipid levels (TC/HDL). We conducted mixed regression analyses to assess intervention effects by cardiovascular risk profile, and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to evaluate longitudinal changes in the high-risk subpopulation. Results A significant intervention effect on MVPA during school hours was found for physically inactive children (B: 1.71, 95% CI: 0.14 – 3.35, p-value: 0.008), and among active (B: 1.80, 95% CI: -0.22 – 3.82, p-value: 0.035) and inactive (B: 2.03, 95% CI: 0.58 – 3.42, p-value: < 0.001) girls. In contrast, the intervention lowered HbA1c (B: -0.26, 95% CI: -0.52 – -0.01, p-value: 0.037) and TC/HDL (B: -0.11, 95% CI: 0.18 – -0.05, p-value: 0.002) only in children with normal glucose or lipid values, respectively. The intervention effects were not maintained in at-risk children at follow-up. A decline was observed in MVPA from 53.29 to 41.90 min/day (z = -1.95, p = 0.05, r = 0.26), and an increase in BMI-for-age (z = -0.34, p = 0.737, r = 0.03), MAP (z = -5.18, p < 0.001, r = 0.42), HbA1c (z = -1.63, p = 0.104, r = 0.25) and TC/HDL (z = -1.61, p = 0.11, r = 0.21). Conclusion We conclude that schools are key settings to promote PA and improve health; however, because the intervention effects were not maintained in children at risk of NCDs, structural changes that ensure effective interventions reach disadvantaged populations are necessary to achieve sustainable impact.

Purpose: To compare critical speed (CS) derived from all-out testing (AOT) for linear and shuttle running with metrics from a graded exercise test, the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1), and estimation of an 800-m-shuttle time trial. Methods: Twelve male rugby players completed a graded exercise test, the YYIR1, a linear AOT, shuttle AOTs of 25 and 50 m, and an 800-m-shuttle time trial consisting of 32 × 25-m shuttles. Results: Strong linear correlations were observed between maximum oxygen uptake () and CS (m·s−1) derived from the linear AOT (3.68 [0.62], r = .90, P r = .83, P showed lower correlations with speeds evoking CS from 25-m AOT (2.86 [0.18], r = .42, P = .18) and YYIR1 (4.36 [0.11], r = .55, P = .07). The 800-m time trial (213.58 [15.84] s) was best predicted using parameters from the 25-m AOT (r = .93, SEE = 6.60 s, P Conclusions: The AOT is a valuable method of assessing performance-specific fitness, with CS from linear and 50-m-shuttle AOTs being strong predictors of , rivaling metrics from the graded exercise test. The YYIR1 offered limited utility compared with the AOT method.

Childhood hypertension drives hypertension in later life; hence, assessing blood pressure in children is an important measure to determine current and future cardiovascular health. There is, however, a paucity of childhood blood pressure data, particularly for sub-Saharan Africa. This study explores blood pressure and associations with age, sex, socioeconomic status, physical activity, fitness, and cardiovascular risk markers. In the 'Disease, Activity and Schoolchildren's Health' (DASH) study, a cross-sectional analysis was conducted in disadvantaged neighbourhoods in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Assessments included blood pressure, accelerometer-measured physical activity, physical fitness, and cardiovascular risk markers. The study consisted of 785 children (383 boys, 402 girls, M = 12.4+/-0.9 years). Overall, 18% of the children were classified as hypertensive, while 20% were either overweight/obese, and almost four out of ten children did not meet global daily physical activity recommendations. Hypertensive children were more likely to be overweight/obese, chi(2) (2,785) = 14.42, p < 0.01, but only if they did not meet physical activity recommendations, chi(2) (2,295) = 11.93, p < 0.01. Considering the moderating effect which sufficient activity has on the relationship between hypertension and body weight, more emphasis should be placed on early primary health intervention and education strategies.

Background The prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing among African children potentially predisposing them to greater obesity and non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in adulthood. This risk may be higher among growth-impaired children who may have greater fat mass. Therefore, we examined the effects of school-based physical activity (PA) promotion and multi-micronutrient supplementation (MMNS) on body composition among South African children enrolled in a longitudinal school-based randomized controlled trial. Methods Children were cluster-randomized by class to one of four groups: (a) a physical activity group (PA), (b) a multi-micronutrient supplementation group (MMNS), (c) a physical activity + multi-micronutrient supplementation group (PA + MMNS), and (d) control group, and were being followed for 3 years. Linear random effects regression models with random intercepts for school classes tested the associations of each intervention arm with overall fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM), truncal fat mass (TrFM), and truncal fat-free mass (TrFFM) at 9 months (T2) for boys and girls. These differences were then explored among children who differed in height velocity (HV). Results A total of 1304 children (614 girls, 667 boys) in twelve clusters were assessed at baseline and after 9 months follow-up (T2). At baseline, approximately 15% of children were classified as overweight or obese while approximately 38% of children were classified as mildly stunted or moderately/severely stunted. Among girls, promotion of PA was associated with reduced FM and TrFM at T2 while MMNS was associated with increased FFM. Children with reduced HV in the PA arm had reduced FM while children in the MMNS arm with lower HV had increased FFM compared to children in the control arm. Similarly, children with lower HV in the MM and PA groups had reduced TrFM compared to children in the control arm. Conclusions Our study suggests that the promotion of school-based physical activity programs and micronutrient supplementation can reduce childhood adiposity and so reduce the risk of obesity and chronic diseases later in adulthood. Trial registration ISRCTN, ISRCTN29534081. Registered on August 9, 2018. The trial was designed, analyzed, and interpreted based on the CONSORT protocol (Additional file 1: CONSORT checklist for randomized trial)

Childhood stunting can have negative long-term consequences on cognitive development, academic achievement, and economic productivity later in life. We determined the prevalence of stunting and examined whether stunting and associated risk factors (low dietary diversity, insufficient hemoglobin, food insecurity, and soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections) are associated with academic achievement and cognitive function among South African children living in marginalized communities. A cross-sectional sample of 1277 children (aged 5–12 years) was analyzed. Stunting was defined according to 2007 WHO growth references. Cognitive functioning was measured with the computerized Flanker task and academic performance via school grades. Blood and stool samples were collected to obtain hemoglobin level and STH infection. Dietary diversity was assessed by a food frequency questionnaire. Associations were examined via mixed linear regression (with school class as a random intercept). Nine percent of the children were stunted (95% CI: 7.6–10.8%). Low dietary diversity (β = 0.13, p = 0.004), food insecurity (β = −0.12, p = 0.034), and stunting (β = −0.13, p = 0.031) were associated with poorer end of the year results among girls. No such associations were found among boys. No significant associations were found for socioeconomic status and hemoglobin levels. The prevalence of stunting and STH infections were low in the present sample. Risk factors seem differently associated with girls’ and boys’ academic achievement. Promoting nutrition may help to promote academic achievement among girls living in low- and middle-income countries.

ObjectivesTo determine the prevalence of individual cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and clustered CVD risk among children attending schools in periurban areas of Gqeberha and to investigate the independent association between clustered CVD risk, moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF).MethodsBaseline data were collected in a cross-sectional analysis of 975 children aged 8–13 years. We measured the height, weight, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting glucose, full lipid panel, 20 m shuttle run performance and accelerometry. The prevalence of individual risk factors was determined, and a clustered risk score (CRS) was constructed using principal component analysis. Children with an elevated CRS of 1 SD above the average CRS were considered ‘at-risk’.ResultsWe found 424 children (43.3%) having at least one elevated CVD risk factor: 27.7% elevated triglycerides, 20.7% depressed high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and 15.9% elevated total cholesterol. An elevated clustered risk was identified in 17% (n=104) of the sample; girls exhibited a significantly higher CRS >1 SD than boys (p=0.036). The estimated odds of an elevated clustered risk are doubled every 2 mL/kg/min decrease in VO2max (95% CI 1.66 to 3.12) or every 49 min reduction in MVPA (95% CI 27 to 224).ConclusionA relatively high prevalence of elevated individual and clustered CVD risk was identified. Our results have also confirmed the independent inverse association of the clustered CVD risk with physical activity and CRF. These indicate that increased levels of CRF or MVPA may aid in the prevention and reduction of elevated clustered CVD risk.

Background Cardiovascular fitness has been associated with both executive function and academic achievement in multiple cohort studies including children and adolescents. However, research is scarce among children from low- and middle-income countries. Hence, this paper focuses on South African primary schoolchildren living in marginalized areas and examines if academic achievement and inhibitory control can be explained by children’s age, socioeconomic status, soil-transmitted helminth infections, food insecurity, stunting, grip strength, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Methods The sample of this cross-sectional study consisted of 1277 children (48% girls, mean age: 8.3 years). Data were assessed via questionnaires, stool samples, anthropometric measurements, 20 m shuttle run test, grip strength test, Flanker task, and school grades. Data were analysed with mixed linear regression models with random intercepts for school classes, separately for boys and girls. Results Higher socioeconomic status was most closely associated with academic achievement among boys (p p p p p Conclusions Academic performance has been shown to be compromised in schoolchildren living in marginalised areas, compared to schoolchildren in less disadvantaged parts of South Africa. The present study suggests that cardiorespiratory fitness and grip strength are two potentially modifiable factors that are associated with children’s academic achievement and cognitive performance, and that should be targeted in future school-based interventions.

Background/AimPhysical inactivity (PIA) is a growing global health problem and evidence suggests that PIA is a key driver for cardiovascular and chronic diseases. Recent data from South Africa revealed that only about half of the children achieved recommended daily physical activity (PA) levels. Assessing the intensity of PA in children from low socioeconomic communities in low-income and middle-income countries is important to estimate the extent of cardiovascular risk and overall impact on health.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey in eight quintile 3 primary schools in disadvantaged communities in the Port Elizabeth region, South Africa. Children aged 10–15 years were subjected to PA, blood pressure, cholesterol, blood glucose and skinfold thickness assessments. Cardiovascular risk markers were converted into standardised z-scores and summed, to obtain a clustered cardiovascular risk score.ResultsOverall, 650 children had complete data records. 40.8% of the children did not meet recommended PA levels (ie, logged ConclusionsCRF and objectively assessed PA are closely linked with children’s clustered cardiovascular risk. Given that 4 out of 10 South African schoolchildren from marginalised communities do not meet international PA recommendations, efforts should be made to ensure that promoting a physically active lifestyle is recognised as an important educational goal in primary schools.Trial registration numbersISRCTN68411960 and H14-HEA-HMS-002.

All-out, non-steady state running makes for difficult comparisons regarding linear and shuttle running; yet such differences remain an important distinction for field-based sports. The purpose of the study was to determine whether an energetic approach could be used to differentiate all-out linear from shuttle running. Fifteen male field-sport athletes volunteered for the study (means ± SD): age, 21.53 ± 2.23 years; height, 1.78 ± 0.68 m; weight, 83.85 ± 11.73 kg. Athletes completed a graded exercise test, a 3-min linear all-out test and two all-out shuttle tests of varied distances (25 m and 50 m shuttles). Significant differences between the all-out tests were found for critical speed (CS) [F(8.97), p

Stool-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for pathogenic intestinal protozoa (e.g. Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis) allow for prompt diagnosis and treatment in resource-constrained settings. Such RDTs can improve individual patient management and facilitate population-based screening programmes in areas without microbiological laboratories for confirmatory testing. However, RDTs are difficult to interpret in case of 'trace' results with faint test band intensities and little is known about whether such ambiguous results might indicate 'true' infections. In a longitudinal study conducted in poor neighbourhoods of Port Elizabeth, South Africa, a total of 1428 stool samples from two cohorts of schoolchildren were examined on the spot for Cryptosporidium spp. and G. intestinalis using an RDT (Crypto/Giardia DuoStrip; Coris BioConcept). Overall, 121 samples were positive for G. intestinalis and the RDT suggested presence of cryptosporidiosis in 22 samples. After a storage period of 9-10 months in cohort 1 and 2-3 months in cohort 2, samples were subjected to multiplex PCR (BD Max™ Enteric Parasite Panel, Becton Dickinson). Ninety-three percent (112/121) of RDT-positive samples for G. intestinalis were confirmed by PCR, with a correlation between RDT test band intensity and quantitative pathogen load present in the sample. For Cryptosporidium spp., all positive RDTs had faintly visible lines and these were negative on PCR. The performance of the BD Max™ PCR was nearly identical in both cohorts, despite the prolonged storage at disrupted cold chain conditions in cohort 1. The Crypto/Giardia DuoStrip warrants further validation in communities with a high incidence of diarrhoea.

Background: Information about the relationships between physical fitness, body composition and nutrition has increased in recent years; however, little is known about physical fitness and the coexistence of under-/overnutrition among children living in disadvantaged areas. Objectives: To determine the physical fitness status and its association with body composition, growth and selected socio- demographics in primary schoolchildren from disadvantaged communities in the Nelson Mandela Bay region. Methods: Nine hundred and sixty-five children (49% girls, M=9.5 years) participated in this cross-sectional study. Height and weight were measured to establish body mass index, and height-for-age z-scores. Physical fitness was assessed using tests from the Eurofit Physical Fitness test battery (flexibility, upper/lower body muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness). Between- group differences and cross-sectional associations were examined with univariate (Chi2-tests, analyses of variance) and multivariate methods (mixed linear/logistic regression). Results: Most children had normal weight (76.7%), while 4.5% were underweight and 18.7% were overweight/obese. Underweight children and children with stunted growth (11.5%) had lower average upper body strength (p

Introduction: Regular physical activity is associated with multiple health benefits for children. Evidence from cross-sectional studies suggests that physical activity is positively associated with health-related quality of life (HRQoL). The promotion of physical activity, and hence HRQoL, through a school-based intervention is therefore an important endeavor, particularly in disadvantaged areas of low- and middle-income countries, including South Africa. Methods: We designed a multicomponent physical activity intervention that was implemented over a 20-week period in 2015 in eight disadvantaged primary schools of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Overall, 758 children aged 8–13 years participated. HRQoL was measured with the 27-item KIDSCREEN questionnaire. Self-reported physical activity was assessed with a single item of the Health-Behavior of School-Aged Children test, and cardiorespiratory fitness with the 20-m shuttle run test. Post-intervention scores were predicted with mixed linear regression models, taking into consideration the clustered nature of the data. Results: Higher baseline levels as well as increasing levels of self-reported physical activity predicted all dimensions of children's HRQoL. Baseline levels and increases in cardiorespiratory fitness predicted children's self-perceived physical well-being (one of the HRQoL subscales). Participation in the multicomponent physical activity intervention did not affect children's HRQoL. Conclusion: Higher and increasing self-reported physical activity predict all assessed HRQoL dimensions, which underlines that the promotion of regular physical activity among children living in disadvantaged settings is an important public health measure. Policy makers should encourage schools to create physical activity friendly environments, while schools should implement regular physical education as proposed by the school curriculum.

BACKGROUND The burden of poverty-related infectious diseases remains high in low- and middle-income countries, while noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are rapidly gaining importance. To address this dual disease burden, the KaziBantu project aims at improving and promoting health literacy as a means for a healthy and active lifestyle. The project implements a school-based health intervention package consisting of physical education, moving-to-music, and specific health and nutrition education lessons from the KaziKidz toolkit. It is complemented by the KaziHealth workplace health intervention program for teachers. OBJECTIVES The aim of the KaziBantu project is to assess the effect of a school-based health intervention package on risk factors for NCDs, health behaviors, and psychosocial health in primary school children in disadvantaged communities in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. In addition, we aim to test a workplace health intervention for teachers. METHODS A randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted in 8 schools. Approximately 1000 grade 4 to grade 6 school children, aged 9 to 13 years, and approximately 60 teachers will be recruited during a baseline survey in early 2019. For school children, the study is designed as a 36-week, cluster RCT (KaziKidz intervention), whereas for teachers, a 24-week intervention phase (KaziHealth intervention) is planned. The intervention program consists of 3 main components; namely, (1) KaziKidz and KaziHealth teaching material, (2) workshops, and (3) teacher coaches. After randomization, 4 of the 8 schools will receive the education program, whereas the other schools will serve as the control group. Intervention schools will be further randomized to the different combinations of 2 additional intervention components: teacher workshops and teacher coaching. RESULTS This study builds on previous experience and will generate new evidence on health intervention responses to NCD risk factors in school settings as a decision tool for future controlled studies that will enable comparisons among marginalized communities between South African and other African settings. CONCLUSIONS The KaziKidz teaching material is a holistic educational and instructional tool designed for primary school teachers in low-resource settings, which is in line with South Africa’s Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. The ready-to-use lessons and assessments within KaziKidz should facilitate the use and implementation of the teaching material. Furthermore, the KaziHealth interventions should empower teachers to take care of their health through knowledge gains regarding disease risk factors, physical activity, fitness, psychosocial health, and nutrition indicators. Teachers as role models will be able to promote better health behaviors and encourage a healthy and active lifestyle for children at school. We conjecture that improved health and well-being increase teachers’ productivity with trickle-down effects on the children they teach and train. CLINICALTRIAL International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN): 18485542; http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN18485542 INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPOR DERR1-10.2196/14097

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of a 20-week school-based physical activity intervention program on academic performance and selective attention among disadvantaged South African primary school children. DESIGN: Cluster randomized control trial. METHODS: The study cohort included 663 children from eight primary schools, aged 8-13 years. Data assessment took place between February 2015 and May 2016 following the implementation of a 20-week school-based physical activity program. The d2 test was employed to assess selective attention, while the averaged end-of-year school results (math, life skills, home language, and additional language) were used as an indicator of academic performance. Physical fitness was assessed using the 20-m shuttle run test (VO2 max) and grip strength tests. We controlled for cluster effects, baseline scores in selective attention or academic performance, and potential confounders, such as children's age, gender, socioeconomic status, self-reported physical activity (as determined by a pre-tested questionnaire), body mass index, hemoglobin (as a proxy for anemia, as measured by blood sampling), and soil-transmitted helminth infections (as assessed by the Kato-Katz technique). RESULTS: Our multivariate analysis suggested that the physical activity intervention had a positive effect on academic performance (p = 0.032), while no effect was found on selective attention (concentration performance; p = 0.469; error percentage; p = 0.237). After controlling for potential confounders, the physical activity condition contributed to the maintenance of academic performance, whereas a decrease was observed in learners in the control condition. Furthermore, physically active and fit children tend to have better concentration performance (CP) than their less fit peers (self-reported activity; p0.021). CONCLUSION: A 20-week physical activity intervention contributes to the maintenance of academic performance among socioeconomically deprived school children in South Africa. School administrators should ensure that their school staff implements physical activity lessons, which are a compulsory component of the school by the curriculum.

People from low- and middle-income countries still face challenges stemming from parasitic infections. Additionally, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and their risk factors are rapidly increasing, which puts South African children at an elevated risk of a dual disease burden, with negative consequences for child development and wellbeing. Contrastingly, regular physical activity (PA) is associated with decreased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine whether PA is associated with the double infection-CVD phenotype burden in South African schoolchildren. 801 children (402 boys, 399 girls; mean age 9.5 years) from eight schools from disadvantaged neighbourhoods were included. Data assessment took place between February and March 2015 in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Children who achieved PA recommendations (physically active on 6-7 days/week for at least 60 min), who were active, but below recommended standards (2-5 physically active days/week), or who were insufficiently active on almost all days (0-1 physically active days/week) were compared with regard to systolic and diastolic blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), percent body fat, and infection with soil-transmitted helminths. Moderate and high self-reported PA levels were associated with lower BMI, lower body fat, and lower risk of being hypertensive. Conversely, children with high self-reported PA were more likely to be infected with soil-transmitted helminths than peers with low PA levels. Promoting PA in disadvantaged areas is worthwhile to prevent NCD later in life, but should be combined with regular anthelminthic treatment to comprehensively improve children's health and wellbeing.

The relationship between health-related quality of life (HRQoL), physical activity (PA), and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) among disadvantaged communities in low- and middle-income countries is poorly understood. In South Africa, children from socioeconomically deprived households are at an elevated risk of sedentary lifestyles and poor HRQoL. We examined whether higher self-reported PA and higher CRF levels are associated with better HRQoL in South African schoolchildren from disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Overall, 832 children aged 8–12 years participated in this cross-sectional study. HRQoL was assessed through five dimensions of the KIDSCREEN-27 tool. Self-reported PA was measured using a single item of the Health-Behaviour of School-Aged Children test, and CRF with the 20-m shuttle run test. Higher self-reported PA was significantly and positively related to HRQoL. Significant, but small group differences existed across all dimensions of HRQoL between low and high self-reported PA. No significant associations were observed between CRF levels and HRQoL. Schoolchildren reporting PA of at least 60 min on at least 6 days a week (the recommended minimum) report higher HRQoL than their peers with lower PA levels.

Background: The burden of poverty-related infectious diseases remains high in low- and middle-income countries, while noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are rapidly gaining importance. To address this dual disease burden, the KaziBantu project aims at improving and promoting health literacy as a means for a healthy and active lifestyle. The project implements a school-based health intervention package consisting of physical education, moving-to-music, and specific health and nutrition education lessons from the KaziKidz toolkit. It is complemented by the KaziHealth workplace health intervention program for teachers. Objectives: The aim of the KaziBantu project is to assess the effect of a school-based health intervention package on risk factors for NCDs, health behaviors, and psychosocial health in primary school children in disadvantaged communities in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. In addition, we aim to test a workplace health intervention for teachers. Methods: A randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted in 8 schools. Approximately 1000 grade 4 to grade 6 school children, aged 9 to 13 years, and approximately 60 teachers will be recruited during a baseline survey in early 2019. For school children, the study is designed as a 36-week, cluster RCT (KaziKidz intervention), whereas for teachers, a 24-week intervention phase (KaziHealth intervention) is planned. The intervention program consists of 3 main components; namely, (1) KaziKidz and KaziHealth teaching material, (2) workshops, and (3) teacher coaches. After randomization, 4 of the 8 schools will receive the education program, whereas the other schools will serve as the control group. Intervention schools will be further randomized to the different combinations of 2 additional intervention components: teacher workshops and teacher coaching. Results: This study builds on previous experience and will generate new evidence on health intervention responses to NCD risk factors in school settings as a decision tool for future controlled studies that will enable comparisons among marginalized communities between South African and other African settings. Conclusions: The KaziKidz teaching material is a holistic educational and instructional tool designed for primary school teachers in low-resource settings, which is in line with South Africa’s Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. The ready-to-use lessons and assessments within KaziKidz should facilitate the use and implementation of the teaching material. Furthermore, the KaziHealth interventions should empower teachers to take care of their health through knowledge gains regarding disease risk factors, physical activity, fitness, psychosocial health, and nutrition indicators. Teachers as role models will be able to promote better health behaviors and encourage a healthy and active lifestyle for children at school. We conjecture that improved health and well-being increase teachers’ productivity with trickle-down effects on the children they teach and train. Trial Registration: International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number (ISRCTN): 18485542; http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN18485542 International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/14097

Background Albendazole is one of two standard drugs for the control of soil-transmitted helminthiasis. Methods A total of 149 schoolchildren from Port Elizabeth, South Africa, were examined for soil-transmitted helminth infections using duplicate Kato-Katz thick smears before and 2 weeks after administration of albendazole (400 mg). Results Trichuris trichiura was the predominant soil-transmitted helminth species (prevalence 60.4%), followed by Ascaris lumbricoides (47.7%). While albendazole was highly efficacious against A. lumbricoides (cure rate [CR] 97.2%; egg reduction rate [ERR] 94.3%), it lacked efficacy against T. trichiura (CR 1.1%; ERR 46.0%). Conclusions Our study confirms low efficacy of single dose albendazole against T. trichiura. There is a need for safe and efficacious drugs against T. trichiura.

Obesity-related conditions impose a considerable and growing burden on low- and middle-income countries, including South Africa. We aimed to assess the effect of twice a 10-week multidimensional, school-based physical activity intervention on children&rsquo, s health in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. A cluster-randomised controlled trial was implemented from February 2015 to May 2016 in grade 4 classes in eight disadvantaged primary schools. Interventions consisted of physical education lessons, moving-to-music classes, in-class activity breaks and school infrastructure enhancement to promote physical activity. Primary outcomes included cardiorespiratory fitness, body mass index (BMI) and skinfold thickness. Explanatory variables were socioeconomic status, self-reported physical activity, stunting, anaemia and parasite infections. Complete data were available from 746 children. A significantly lower increase in the mean BMI Z-score (estimate of difference in mean change: &minus, 0.17, 95% confidence interval (CI): &minus, 0.24 to &minus, 0.09, p &lt, 0.001) and reduced increase in the mean skinfold thickness (difference in mean change: &minus, 1.06, 95% CI: &minus, 1.83 to &minus, 0.29, p = 0.007) was observed in intervention schools. No significant group difference occurred in the mean change of cardiorespiratory fitness (p &gt, 0.05). These findings show that a multidimensional, school-based physical activity intervention can reduce the increase in specific cardiovascular risk factors. However, a longer and more intensive intervention might be necessary to improve cardiorespiratory fitness.

Background Socioeconomically deprived children are at increased risk of ill-health associated with sedentary behavior, malnutrition, and helminth infection. The resulting reduced physical fitness, growth retardation, and impaired cognitive abilities may impede children’s capacity to pay attention. The present study examines how socioeconomic status (SES), parasitic worm infections, stunting, food insecurity, and physical fitness are associated with selective attention and academic achievement in school-aged children. Methodology The study cohort included 835 children, aged 8–12 years, from eight primary schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighborhoods of Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The d2-test was utilized to assess selective attention. This is a paper and pencil letter-cancellation test consisting of randomly mixed letters d and p with one to four single and/or double quotation marks either over and/or under each letter. Children were invited to mark only the letters d that have double quotation marks. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed via the 20 m shuttle run test and muscle strength using the grip strength test. The Kato-Katz thick smear technique was employed to detect helminth eggs in stool samples. SES and food insecurity were determined with a pre-tested questionnaire, while end of year school results were used as an indicator of academic achievement. Principal findings Children infected with soil-transmitted helminths had lower selective attention, lower school grades (academic achievement scores), and lower grip strength (all p, Author summary Children growing up in challenging environments, such as townships in South Africa, are at an increased risk of ill-health associated with sedentary behavior, poor nutrition, growth retardation, and infections with parasitic worms. Negative factors such as limited educational resources, insufficient health care and safety are exacerbating the effects of poverty and, taken together, might cause developmental delays and school failure. A total of 835 school children aged 8–12 years were examined for soil-transmitted helminth infection, physical fitness, selective attention, stunting, household socioeconomic conditions, and food security. Furthermore, children’s academic achievement scores were utilized as a proxy for academic achievement. The multivariate analyses showed that low selective attention was associated with soil-transmitted helminth infection and low shuttle run performance, whereas higher academic achievement was observed in children without soil-transmitted helminth infection and with higher shuttle run performance. Our study suggests that soil-transmitted helminths and low physical fitness hinder children from realizing their full potential.

Background Socioeconomically deprived children are at increased risk of ill health associated with sedentary behavior malnutrition and helminth infection. The resulting reduced physical fitness growth retardation and impaired cognitive abilities may impede children’s capacity to pay attention. The present study examines how socioeconomic status (SES) parasitic worm infections stunting food insecurity and physical fitness are associated with selective attention and academic achievement in school aged children. Methodology The study cohort included 835 children aged 8–12 years from eight primary schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged neighborhoods of Port Elizabeth South Africa. The d2 test was utilized to assess selective attention. This is a paper and pencil letter cancellation test consisting of randomly mixed letters d and p with one to four single and/or double quotation marks either over and/or under each letter. Children were invited to mark only the letters d that have double quotation marks. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed via the 20 m shuttle run test and muscle strength using the grip strength test. The Kato Katz thick smear technique was employed to detect helminth eggs in stool samples. SES and food insecurity were determined with a pre tested questionnaire while end of year school results were used as an indicator of academic achievement. Principal findings Children infected with soil transmitted helminths had lower selective attention lower school grades (academic achievement scores) and lower grip strength (all p