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Replaced with revised version of paper 02/15/06.

The economic potential of no-tillage versus conventional tillage to sequester soil carbon using either commercial nitrogen or manure for continuous corn production is evaluated. Results indicate which system provides the highest net returns, which system is preferred by risk averse decision makers, and the price of carbon credits under alternative risk aversion preferences.

An economic analysis was conducted involving wheat and grain sorghum production systems that affect carbon dioxide emissions and sequester soil carbon. Parameters examined were expected net returns, changes in net carbon sequestered and the value of carbon credits necessary to equate net returns from systems that sequester more carbon to those that sequester less with and without adjustments for CO2 emissions from production inputs. Evaluations were based on experiment station cropping practices, yield, and soil carbon data for continuously cropped and rotated wheat and grain sorghum produced with conventional and no-tillage. No-till had lower net returns because of lower yields and higher overall costs. Both crops produced under no-till had higher annual soil C gains than under conventional tillage. However, no-till systems had higher total atmospheric emissions of C from production inputs. The differences were relatively small. The C values estimated in this study that would equate net returns of no-tillage to conventional tillage range from $7.82 to $58.69/ton/yr when C emissions from production inputs were subtracted from soil carbon sequestered and $7.79 to $54.99/ton/yr when atmospheric emissions were not considered.

This study examined the economic potential with and without carbon credit payments of two crop and tillage systems in South Central Kansas that could reduce carbon dioxide emissions and sequester carbon in the soil. Experiment station cropping practices, yield data, and soil carbon data for continuously cropped wheat and grain sorghum produced with conventional tillage and no-tillage from1986 to 1995 were used to determine soil carbon changes and to develop enterprise budgets to determine expected net returns for a typical dryland farm in South Central Kansas. No-till had lower net returns because of lower yields and higher overall costs. Both crops produced under no-till had higher annual soil C gains than under conventional tillage. Carbon credit payments may be critical to induce farm managers to use cropping practices, such as no-till, that sequester soil carbon. The carbon credit payments needed will be highly dependent on cropping system production costs, especially herbicide costs, which substitute for tillage as a means of weed control. The C values estimated in this study that would provide an incentive to adopt no-tillage range from $0 to $95.991ton/year, depending upon the assumption about herbicide costs. In addition, if producers were compensated for other environmental benefits associated with no-till, carbon credits could be reduced.

The change in land use is an important factor affecting soil C stocks and their distribution in the soil profile. The conversion of native vegetation (NV) for agricultural systems causes a sharp decline in carbon storage in the soil, especially when the soil management is based on intensive and frequent handling and input waste of limited harvest operations. However, the adoption of the preservation system based on minimal soil disturbance and intensive cultivation system can restore levels of soil C stock. Thus , this study aimed to select six pioneer and reference areas of no-till in Rio Grande do Sul, which are now at the stage of consolidated system (>20 years) and paired with nearby native vegetation. This study is divided into three chapters: a) the first evaluated the accumulation and redistribution of carbon in the profile; b) second chapter evaluated key elements in the accumulation of carbon in the surface (0-15 cm) and deep (60-100 cm) layers c) and the third chapter tested the hypothesis that the CSR is affected by soil order and climate type. The main treatments were soil tillage and different cropping systems in two long-term experiments. The implementation of no-till for the six areas ranged from 1978 to 1990, with different textural and mineralogical gradients. Soil samples were collected at five soil depths in a soil profile (0-100 cm). The C content in the soil was determined by dry combustion analyzer using a C/N. The soil C stock was calculated based on the equivalent mass of soil. The principal component analysis (PCA) were performed with the Statistica software version 7 and used a data matrix consisting of 24 variables (attributes of climate, topography and soil surface and subsurface layer). Multiple regressions were also performed to model the C stock in the layer 0-15 and 60-100 cm depth, the method of "Stepwise" selection technique of Forward variables. The statistical regression analyzes were performed using the program JMP iN version 3.2.1 (SALL et al. 2005), using the F test at 5% significance. In chapter 1 data presented indicate that site 1 (Santa Rosa) showed the most reduction in C stock for the conversion of NV to cropping system, ranging 32-39%. C stock surface (0-5 cm) was fully recovered at site 2 (Manoel Viana), site 3 (Palm Missions), site 4 (Lagoa Vermelha) and site 5 (Cruz Alta), with this recovery of 144 % for Typic Quartzipisamment and ranging from 100 to 122% for Oxisols. The biggest changes, with regard to redistribution and increase of carbon storage occurred in the Oxisol, site 4 (Lagoa Vermelha) and 5 (Cruz Alta). There was an increase in the concentrations of particulate organic carbon (POC) in the Lagoa Vermelha and Cruz Alta, sites 4 and 5, across sampled profile relative to NV. In chapter 2 the factors that determined the accumulation of C were different in the condition of subsuperfical layer (60-100 cm) in relation to the surface layer (0-15 cm). In the surface layer (0-15 cm), the saturation of calcium, magnesium, effective cation exchange capacity (CEC) and SOM were positively correlated with the C stock in both no-till and NV. In the subsurface layer (60-100 cm) the attributes that best correlated positively with the C stock in the no-till were altitude and soil organic matter (SOM) in the no-till, and clay, and iron oxides SOM in NV. The highest altitude (801 m) and lower mean annual temperature (16.7°C) favored the accumulation of C stock of surface (0-15 cm) and subsoil (60-100 cm) in no-till. Being that the change in mean annual temperature in the subsurface horizon was more sensitive correlation with the C stock (R2= -0.91) compared to the surface horizon (R2= -0.81). In Chapter 3, the higher CSR and CPI indices were found under treatments with minimum soil disturbance and intensive crop rotation. Lower CSR and CPI values were associated with frequent mobilization and lower crop diversity. These CSR indices sensitively distinguished the intensity of tillage (NT replacing CT) and cropping systems (cover crops replacing winter fallow or crop succession).Therefore, given these results, the combination of the no-till with the intensification of cultivation of long-term systems is an efficient tool for the recovery of soil C, playing a crucial role in productivity, environmental ecosystem and soil quality. A mudança no uso da terra é um fator importante que afeta o estoque de C do solo e a sua distribuição no perfil. A conversão da CN para sistemas agrícolas provoca uma queda acentuada no estoque de C no solo, especialmente quando o manejo do solo é baseado em operações de manejo intensivo e frequentes e entrada de resíduo da colheita limitado. No entanto, a adoção do sistema de conservação com base na perturbação mínima do solo e sistema de cultivo intensivo pode restaurar em algum nível do estoque de C no solo. Assim, o presente estudo buscou selecionar seis áreas pioneiras e de referência no SPD no Rio Grande do Sul, que hoje estão na fase de sistema consolidado (> 20 anos) pareadas com campo nativo vizinho. Este estudo esta dividido em três capítulos: a) no primeiro foi avaliado o acúmulo e redistribuição de carbono no perfil; b) no segundo capitulo foi avaliado os fatores determinantes no acúmulo de carbono em camada superficial (0-15 cm) e profunda (0-60 cm) desses solos; c) e o terceiro capítulo testou a hipótese de que a RE é afetada por ordem do solo e tipo de clima. Os tratamentos principais foram preparo do solo e diferentes sistemas de cultivo em dois experimentos de longa duração. A implantação das seis áreas sob SPD variou de 1978 a 1990, com diferentes gradientes texturais e mineralógicos. As amostras de solo foram coletadas em cinco profundidades de solo em um perfil de solo (0-100 cm). O conteúdo de C no solo foi determinado por combustão seca usando um analisador de C/N. O estoque de C no solo foi calculado com base na massa de solo equivalente. Foi realizada a análise de componentes principais (ACP) no software Statistica versão 7 e utilizada uma matriz de dados composta por 24 variáveis (atributos de clima, relevo e solo da camada superficial e subsuperficial). Foi realizada ainda uma regressão múltipla para modelar o estoque de C na camada de 0-15 e 60-100 cm de profundidade, pelo método Stepwise , técnica de seleção de variáveis Forward. As análises estatísticas da regressão foram feitas através do programa JMP IN versão 3.2.1 (SALL et al., 2005), utilizando-se o teste F, a 5% de significância. No capítulo 1 os dados apresentados indicam que o local 1 (Santa Rosa) foi o que mais reduziu o estoque de C pela conversão do CN para sistema de cultivos, variando de 32 a 39%. O estoque de C superficial (0-5 cm) foi recuperado integralmente nos locais Local 2 (Manoel Viana), Local 3 (Palmeira das Missões), Local 4 (Lagoa Vermelha) e Local 5 (Cruz Alta), sendo essa recuperação de 144% para o Neossolo Quartzarênico e variando de 100 a 122 % para os Latossolos argilosos. As maiores alterações, no que diz respeito à redistribuição e incremento de estoque de C, ocorreram no Latossolo dos locais 4 (Lagoa Vermelha) e 5 (Cruz Alta). Houve incremento nas concentrações de COP nos locais de Lagoa Vermelha e Cruz Alta em todo perfil amostrado em relação ao CN. No capitulo 2 os fatores que determinaram o acúmulo de C foram diferentes na condição da camada subsuperfical (60-100 cm) em relação à camada superficial (0-15 cm). Na camada superficial (0-15 cm), a saturação de cálcio, magnésio, CTC efetiva e MOS foram fatores correlacionados positivamente com o estoque de C tanto em SPD como em CN. Na camada subsuperficial (60-100 cm) os atributos que melhor se correlacionaram positivamente com o estoque de C no SPD foram altitude e MOS no SPD, e a argila, MOS e óxidos de ferro no CN. A maior altitude (801 m) e a menor temperatura média anual (16,7 ºC) favoreceram o acúmulo de estoques de C superficial (0-15 cm) e subsuperficial (60-100 cm) no SPD. Sendo, que a mudança de temperatura média anual no horizonte subsuperficial teve correlação mais sensível com o estoque de C (R2= -0,91) em relação ao horizonte superficial (R2= -0,81). No capitulo 3, os índices de RE e CPI mais elevados foram encontrados sob tratamentos com perturbação mínima do solo e rotação de culturas intensivas. Valores de RE e CPI baixos estavam associados a mobilização frequente e menor diversidade de culturas. Estes índices de RSE sensibilidade distinguiu a intensidade de plantio direto (PD substituindo PC) e sistemas de cultivo (culturas de cobertura de inverno substituindo sucessão pousio ou cultura). Portanto, diante desses resultados, a associação do SPD com a intensificação de sistemas de cultivo de longo prazo é uma ferramenta eficiente para a recuperação do C no solo, desempenhando um papel crucial na produtividade do ecossistema, ambiental e de qualidade do solo.