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Since several decades, we observe the decline of various bird populations that could be partly linked to the agricultural intensification and the use of large amount of pesticides. Even if triazoles compounds are the most widely used fungicides, their effects on the reproductive parameters in birds are not clearly known. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro effects of 8 triazoles compounds alone (propiconazole (PP, from 0 to 10 µM), prothioconazole (PT), epoxiconazole (Epox), tetraconazole (TT), tebuconazole (TB), difenoconazole (Dif), cyproconazole (Cypro), metconazole (MC) (from 0 to 1 mM)) on the male chicken reproductive functions by using testis explants, primary Sertoli cells and sperm samples. In testis, all triazoles at the higher concentrations for 48 h inhibited lactate and testosterone secretion mostly in association with reduced expression of HSD3B and/or STAR mRNA levels. These data were also associated with increased expression of the nuclear receptors Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR) and Constitutive Androstane Receptor (CAR) mRNA levels in testis and for all triazoles except for PP a reduction in Sertoli cell viability. When focusing on the sperm parameters, we demonstrated that most of the triazoles (MC, Epox, Dif, TB, TT and Cypro) at 0.1 or 1 mM for either 2, 12 or 24 min of exposure decreased sperm motility and velocity and increased the percentage of spermatozoa abnormal morphology. At the opposite, PP increased sperm motility in a dose dependent manner after 2 min of exposure whereas no significant effect was observed in response to PT whatever the dose and the time of exposure. Moreover, these effects were associated with an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species in spermatozoa. Taken together, most of the triazoles compounds impair testis steroidogenesis and semen parameters potentially through an increase in AHR and CAR expression and in oxidative stress, respectively. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT: All the data will be available.

International audience; Genetic selection in parental broiler breeders has increased their susceptibility to metabolic disorders and reproductive dysfunction. We have recently shown that maternal dietary grape seed extract (GSE) supplementation in hens improves fertility parameters, egg quality, oxidative stress in different tissues and the quality of F1 chicks. Here, we analysed the growth and fertility (both female and male) of the F1 generation animals and the quality of their offspring (F2 generation). Eggs issued from hens supplemented with GSE presented lower ROS production than control hens, suggesting a change in the embryonic environment. However, this did not affect the growth nor the body composition of male and female F1s from hatching to adulthood (37 weeks of age). At 37 weeks of age, the biochemistry analysis of the GSE-F1 muscle has revealed an increase in sensitivity to oxidative stress and a slight change in lipid composition. Both male and female F1-GSE groups presented a delay in puberty with a lower testis volume at 30 weeks of age and lower ovary development at 26 weeks of age. Adult GSE-F1 males did not present histological alterations of seminiferous tubules or semen production, but the semen quality was degraded due to higher oxidative stress and DNA-damaged spermatozoa compared with control F1 animals. In adult GSE-F1 females, despite the delay in puberty, the females laid more eggs of better quality (fewer broken eggs and a higher hatching rate). At hatching, the weight of the chicks from GSE-F1 females was reduced, and this effect was stronger in F2 male chicks (F2) compared with F2 control chicks (F2), because of the lower muscle volume. In conclusion, we can raise the hypothesis that maternal dietary GSE supplementation produces eggs with change in embryonic metabolism, which may affect in adulthood the fertility. The data obtained from the F1-GSE group pointed to a sex-specific modification with higher egg quality in females but semen sensitive to stress in males. Finally, male F2 chicks were leaner than control chicks. Thus, maternal dietary grape seed extract (GSE) supplementation in hens may impact on the fertility of the offspring in a sex-specific manner in subsequent generations.

Additional file 10. Location of G-quadruplex structures in the 14 cDNA models described in [19].

Additional file 5. Genomic sequences of the avian leptin gene

Additional file 1. Sequences of one avian mRNA (a) and exons of one avian gene (b) coding for an intellectin-like protein (ITLN1), and their amino acid sequence comparison (c).

Additional file 2. The sequence of RJF genes coding for the carnitine O-palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1C) and the insulin-like peptide 5 (ISNL5).

Figure S1. Zootechnical parameters in dairy cows fed either with HE or LE diet during the peripartum period in primiparous cows. Live body weight (A), dry matter intake (B), variation of empty body weight (C), energy balance (D), milk yield (E) and back fat thickness (F) of primiparous dairy cows fed either a HE diet or a LE diet was evaluated between − 4 and 16 wk. peripartum. Results are presented as LSM ± SEM. P-values of diet, week and the interaction between diet and week effect are presented. When we observed a significant effect of the week without effect of the diet we represented difference with capital letter while when we observed a significant effect of the week and of the diet we represented separately the differences with low case letters for LE (bold) and HE (pale) cows. P-values were considered significant if P

Figure S1. Zootechnical parameters in dairy cows fed either with HE or LE diet during the peripartum period in primiparous cows. Live body weight (A), dry matter intake (B), variation of empty body weight (C), energy balance (D), milk yield (E) and back fat thickness (F) of primiparous dairy cows fed either a HE diet or a LE diet was evaluated between − 4 and 16 wk. peripartum. Results are presented as LSM ± SEM. P-values of diet, week and the interaction between diet and week effect are presented. When we observed a significant effect of the week without effect of the diet we represented difference with capital letter while when we observed a significant effect of the week and of the diet we represented separately the differences with low case letters for LE (bold) and HE (pale) cows. P-values were considered significant if P

Table S1A. Composition and energy content of the HE and LE diets (% of DM). Table S1B. Chemical composition and nutritional value of feeds. (DOCX 14 kb)

Table S1A. Composition and energy content of the HE and LE diets (% of DM). Table S1B. Chemical composition and nutritional value of feeds. (DOCX 14 kb)