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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary L-theanine supplementation on apparent nutrient digestibility, milk yield, milk composition, and blood biochemical indices of dairy cows under heat stress. Thirty Chinese Holstein cows (19.84 ± 2.42 kg milk/d, 192.36 ± 40.77 d in milk and 2 ± 0.93 parities) were divided into 3 groups of 10 animals each. The control group was fed a basal total mixed ration (TMR) diet, while treatment 1 (LTA16) and treatment 2 (LTA32) groups were fed a basal TMR diet supplemented with L-theanine at 16 and 32 g/cow per day, respectively. The results showed that feeding the dairy cows with LTA16 treatment decreased (

Objective: The effects of maternal undernutrition during midgestation on muscle fiber histology, myosin heavy chain (MyHC) expression, methylation modification of myogenic factors, and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway in the skeletal muscles of prenatal and postnatal goats were examined.Methods: Twenty-four pregnant goats were assigned to a control (100% of the nutrients requirement, n = 12) or a restricted group (60% of the nutrients requirement, n = 12) between 45 and 100 days of gestation. Descendants were harvested at day 100 of gestation and at day 90 after birth to collect the femoris muscle tissue.Results: Maternal undernutrition increased (p

The biological mechanism by which maternal undernutrition increases the metabolic disorder risk of skeletal muscles in offspring is not fully understood. We hypothesize that maternal intake restriction influences metabolic signals in the skeletal muscles of offspring via a glucagon-mediated pathway. Twenty-four pregnant goats were assigned to the control group (100% of the nutrients requirement, n = 12) and restricted group (60% of the control feed allowance from pregnant days 45 to 100, n = 12). Blood and Longissimus thoracis muscle were sampled from dams (100 d of gestation), fetuses (100 d of gestation), and kids (90 d after birth) in each group. The data were analyzed using the linear MIXED model, with the multiple comparison method of SIDAK applied. Intake restriction reduced (P

Background Methionine or lysine has been reported to influence DNA methylation and fat metabolism, but their combined effects in N6-methyl-adenosine (m6A) RNA methylation remain unclarified. The combined effects of rumen-protected methionine and lysine (RML) in a low-protein (LP) diet on lipid metabolism, m6A RNA methylation, and fatty acid (FA) profiles in the liver and muscle of lambs were investigated. Sixty-three male lambs were divided into three treatment groups, three pens per group and seven lambs per pen. The lambs were fed a 14.5% crude protein (CP) diet (adequate protein [NP]), 12.5% CP diet (LP), and a LP diet plus RML (LP + RML) for 60 d. Results The results showed that the addition of RML in a LP diet tended to lower the concentrations of plasma leptin (P = 0.07), triglyceride (P = 0.05), and non-esterified FA (P = 0.08). Feeding a LP diet increased the enzyme activity or mRNA expression of lipogenic enzymes and decreased lipolytic enzymes compared with the NP diet. This effect was reversed by supplementation of RML with a LP diet. The inclusion of RML in a LP diet affected the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), n-3 PUFA, and n-6 PUFA in the liver but not in the muscle, which might be linked with altered expression of FA desaturase-1 (FADS1) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). A LP diet supplemented with RML increased (P 6A levels in the liver and muscle and were accompanied by decreased expression of fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) and alkB homologue 5 (ALKBH5). The mRNA expressions of methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) and methyltransferase-like 14 (METTL14) in the LP + RML diet group were lower than those in the other two groups. Supplementation of RML with a LP diet affected only liver YTH domain family (YTHDF2) proteins (P YTHDF3 (P = 0.09), which can be explained by limited m6A-binding proteins that were mediated in mRNA fate. Conclusions Our findings showed that the inclusion of RML in a LP diet could alter fat deposition through modulations of lipogenesis and lipolysis in the liver and muscle. These changes in fat metabolism may be associated with the modification of m6A RNA methylation. Graphical abstract A systematic graph illustrates the mechanism of dietary methionine and lysine influence on lipid metabolism and M6A. The green arrow with triangular heads indicates as activation and brown-wine arrows with flat heads indicates as suppression.

The colon is a crucial digestive organ of the hind gut in ruminants. The bacterial diversity and mucosal immune maturation in this region are related to age. However, whether the microRNA expression in the colon of goats is affected by age is still unclear. In the current study, we analyzed the transcriptomes of colon microRNAs during preweaning (Day 10 and Day 25) and postweaning (Day 31). A total of 1572 microRNAs were identified in the colon tissues. Of these, 39 differentially expressed microRNAs (DEmiRNAs) and 88 highly expressed microRNAs (HEmiRNAs) were screened. The target genes regulated by the DEmiRNAs and HEmiRNAs were commonly enriched in the MAPK signaling pathway, Wnt signaling pathway, Hippo signaling pathway, cell adhesion molecules, focal adhesion, and adherens junction. Remarkably, the targeted genes of the DEmiRNAs were highly enriched for the prevention of microbial invasion via the Erbb−MAPK network while the targeted genes of HEmiRNAs contributed to the permeable barrier maintenance and cell damage surveillance. Additionally, there were eight different expression profiles of 87 dynamic miRNAs, in which approximately half of them were affected by age. Taken together, our study reveals the different roles of DEmiRNAs, HEmiRNAs, and dynamic microRNAs in the development of the colon and gives new insights into the regulatory mechanism of colon development in goats.

Maintaining muscle quality throughout life is crucial to human health and well-being. Muscle is the most extensive form of protein storage in the human body; skeletal muscle mass is determined by the balance between muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and muscle protein breakdown (MPB). MPB provides amino acids needed by various organs; however, excessive MPB, especially with aging, may cause loss of muscle mass and a decline in motor function, even threatening life. The turnover of muscle protein is vital to the health of humans. Thus, although the study of MPS and MPB has theoretical and practical significance, the network that controls MPS is very complicated and we cannot discuss both MPS and MPB in a single review. Therefore, the aim of this review is to discuss the regulation of MPS, especially by amino acids. Amino acids regulate protein synthesis in cell and animal models, but compelling evidence for amino acids promoting protein synthesis in human muscles is ambiguous. Studies on the stimulation of human MPS by branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) have been inconsistent. Amino acids other than BCAAs such as threonine and tryptophan may also have MPS-stimulating effects, and alternatives to BCAAs, such as β-hydroxy-β-methyl butyrate and branched-chain keto acids are also worthy of further investigation. Amino acids coordinate protein synthesis and degradation through the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1); however, the amino acid-mTORC1-protein synthesis pathway is complex, and new insights into amino acid control continue to emerge. Understanding how amino acids control MPS is of forward-looking significance for treating muscle mass loss during human aging.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of low-protein diets on blood calcium (Ca) level, bone metabolism, and the correlation between bone metabolism and blood calcium in goats. Twenty-four female Xiangdong black goats with similar body weight (19.55 ± 3.55 kg) and age (8.0 ± 0.3 months) were selected and allocated into two groups: control group (CON, 10.77% protein content) and low-protein group (LP, 5.52% protein content). Blood samples were collected on days 1, 4, 7, 16 and 36 before morning feeding to determine the concentration of calcium (Ca), parathyroid hormone (PTH), bone gla protein (BGP), C-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen (CTX-1), bone alkaline phosphatase (BALP), and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3]. Liver samples were collected to determine the expression of bone metabolism-related genes. There was no difference observed between LP and CON in concentration of plasma Ca or any of bone metabolism markers (P > 0.05). In the liver, the mRNA expression of bone gamma carboxyglutamate protein (BGLAP), alkaline phosphatase (ALPL), and mothers against decapentaplegic homolog-1 (SMAD1) were increased (P < 0.05) in LP as compared with CON. The correlation analysis of Ca and bone metabolism markers showed no significant correlation between Ca and bone metabolism. These results suggest that the blood Ca concentration in mature goats may keep at a stable level through nitrogen cycling when the providing protein is not enough.

Methionine or lysine has been reported to influence DNA methylation and fat metabolism, but their combined effects in N6-methyl-adenosine (mThe results showed that the addition of RML in a LP diet tended to lower the concentrations of plasma leptin (P = 0.07), triglyceride (P = 0.05), and non-esterified FA (P = 0.08). Feeding a LP diet increased the enzyme activity or mRNA expression of lipogenic enzymes and decreased lipolytic enzymes compared with the NP diet. This effect was reversed by supplementation of RML with a LP diet. The inclusion of RML in a LP diet affected the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), n-3 PUFA, and n-6 PUFA in the liver but not in the muscle, which might be linked with altered expression of FA desaturase-1 (FADS1) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC). A LP diet supplemented with RML increased (P 0.05) total mOur findings showed that the inclusion of RML in a LP diet could alter fat deposition through modulations of lipogenesis and lipolysis in the liver and muscle. These changes in fat metabolism may be associated with the modification of m

The objective of this study was to investigate the variations in nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation, serum biochemical parameters, and performance resulting from an increase in the proportion of ramie (Boehmeria nivea) substitution for alfalfa in the diets of goats. In a completely randomized block design, thirty-two Liuyang black goats were divided into two blocks according to body weight (BW) (light, BW: 16.7 ± 1.72 kg; and heavy, BW: 26.6 ± 2.95 kg). Then, the sixteen goats in each block were further randomly divided into four subgroups that randomly accepted four treatments, i.e., alfalfa was replaced by ramie at 0%, 35%, 70% and 100%. The results showed that the apparent digestibility of gross energy (GE) (linear, p 0.05) by the inclusion of ramie. The concentration of ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) in the rumen fluid decreased (linear, p

Zinc supplementation in the diet of goats affects pancreas development in offspring. However, the impact of maternal inorganic and organic zinc supplementation in offspring is poorly defined. In this study, 14 late-pregnant goats were assigned at random to the zinc sulfate group (ZnSO

BackgroundThe biological mechanism about that maternal undernutrition increases the metabolic disorder risk of skeletal muscles in offspring is less known. We hypothesize that maternal intake restriction influences metabolic signals in the skeletal muscles of offspring via a glucagon-mediated pathway. Twenty-four pregnant goats were assigned to the control (100% of the nutrients requirement) and restricted (60% of the control from pregnant days of 45 to 100) groups. Blood and longissimus thoracis muscle were sampled from dams, fetuses and kids in each group.ResultsIntake restriction reduced the total blood protein of dams and fetuses. Maternal restriction decreased the CREB1, CREBBP, PKA, BMAL1, AKT1, mTOR, and RPTOR mRNA expressions in the fetuses, reduced the CREBBP, NR1H3, DBP and PKA mRNA levels in the kids, but increased the PGC1α and TSC2 mRNA levels in the fetuses, while the mRNA expression of CLOCK and TSC2 genes was increased in the restricted kids. The protein expression of total PKA and phosphorylated PKA of the restricted fetuses and kids were downregulated, while the protein expression of total mTOR and phosphorylated mTOR were reduced in the restricted fetuses and kids. ConclusionsMaternal intake restriction regulated fat oxidation, protein synthesis, and circadian clock expression in the muscles of the offspring via the glucagon-mediated PKA-CREB pathway, which reveals a molecular pathway that maternal undernutrition leads to metabolic adaptation of skeletal muscle in offspring.

The effect of replacing inorganic zinc with organic zinc in diets of pregnant goats was investigated on the development of the liver and spleen of offspring. Pregnant goats (n = 14; Xiangdong black goat, local breed) of similar parity and body weight (BW, 37.17 ± 5.28 kg) were selected and divided randomly into two groups: the zinc sulfate group (ZnSO4; n = 7) and the methionine-chelated zinc group (Zn-Met; n = 7). Goats were fed for 45 days (day 106 of gestation to delivery). After delivering, lactating goats were fed a diet without extra zinc supplement. Kid goats were weaned at 2 months of age and both the groups were fed the same diet. All goats were fed a mixed diet and had free access to fresh water. Kid goats were slaughtered on day 100, and the liver and spleen were collected, weighed, and stored in liquid nitrogen for genomic DNA methylation and related gene expression determination. In the Zn-Met group, the liver organ index of kid goats showed an increasing trend (P 0.10). Furthermore, the blood zinc content of the offspring was reduced (P

Background Protein malnutrition remains a severe problem in ruminant production and can increase susceptibility to infection, especially during the growth stage. This study aimed to explore substituting soybean meal with corn on activation of the TLR pathway and potential impact on immune response bias towards Type 1 or Type 2 using growing female goats as experimental animals. Methods Twenty-four Xiangdong black goats (initial BW = 19.83 ± 0.53 kg, about 8 ± 0.3 months old) were selected and randomly divided into the corn-soybean meal basal diet group (CON, 10.77% protein) and replacing soybean meal with 100% of corn group (CRS, 5.52% protein). EDTA whole blood and serum samples were collected prior to slaughter for determinations of blood cell counts, anti-inflammatory cytokines and antibodies. The duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon tissues were collected after formal trial to study the effect of CRS diet on the expression of TLR4 pathway. Results Our results showed CRS diet did not induce a significant change in immune function, as evidenced by the observations that white blood cell (WBC), neutrophil (Neu), lymphocyte (Lym), monocyte (Mon), eosinophil (Eos), interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-13, immunoglobin G (IgG), IgA, and IgM levels in serum were similar between the two groups. RT-PCR results showed the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (P < 0.01) and interferon-β (IFN-β) (P < 0.01) were up-regulated in the colon of goats in the CRS group. No differences in the expression of myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) adaptor-like protein (TIRAP), IL-1 receptor–associated kinase 1 (IRAK1), TNF receptor related factor 6 (TRAF6), NF-kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1) or activator protein-1 (AP-1) in the TLR4/MyD88 dependent pathway were observed between the two groups for any of the tested tissue. However, the expression of NF-κB activator (TANK) binding kinase 1 (TBK1) in TLR4/MyD88 independent pathway was up-regulated in the duodenum and colon (P < 0.01), and the expression of interferon regulatory factor-3 (IRF3) was up-regulated (P < 0.01) in colon. Conclusions Our results suggested that the CRS diet failed to induce a significant change in innate immunity and adaptive immunity in growing goats. However, the up-regulated TBK1 and IRF3 in the colon from the CRS goats suggests that the CRS diet may induce the expression of Th1-type proinflammatory cytokines and inflammatory response through a TLR4-MyD88-independent pathway, and the colon may be the easiest targeted section in the intestinal tract.

A high-grain (HG) diet can result in ruminal subacute acidosis, which is detrimental to gut health and can lead to decreased productivity. This study investigated the ileal epithelial microbiota and its relationship with host epithelial function in goats fed a HG diet (concentrate/hay, 90:10) and a control diet (concentrate/hay, 55:45), aiming to elucidate the mechanisms involved in ileal adaptation to subacute acidosis. The HG challenge increased the ileal volatile fatty acid concentration ( p = 0.030) and altered the ileal epithelial microbiota by increasing (FDR < 0.05) relative abundances of active carbohydrate and protein degraders Synergistetes, Prevotella, Fibrobacter, Clostridium, Treponema, and unclassified Ruminococcaceae by 20.1-, 6.3-, 16.8-, 8.5-, 19.9-, and 7.1-fold, respectively. However, the HG diet tended to reduce (FDR < 0.10) the relative abundance of Candidatus Arthromitus (38.8 ± 36.1 versus 2.1 ± 3.1). Microbial functional potentials inferred using PICRUSt indicated that the HG challenge elevated abundances of pathways associated with metabolism of amino acid, glycan, cofactors, and vitamins, whereras it decreased pathways associated with signal transduction, xenobiotic biodegradation, and metabolism. Additionally, in the ileal epithelium of HG goats, transcriptome analysis identified the increment (FDR < 0.10) of candidate genes involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and the proinflammatory cytokine pathway, while downregulating genes encoding antimicrobials and complements (FDR < 0.05). Collectively, the HG challenge shifted the structure and functional potentials of the ileal microbial community and affected the host responses in the ileum of goats toward increased metabolic activities of macro- and micronutrients, together with an increased risk of gut inflammation.

Maternal nutrition during gestation is a leading factor of modifying the foetal epigenome and phenotype for mammals. Imprinting genes have important roles in regulating foetal growth, programming and development. There, however, are limited data available on the effects of feed intake restriction on the expression of imprinting genes in pregnant goats. The present study, therefore, was conducted to assess the effects of maternal feed intake restriction on the relative abundance of mRNA for growth imprinting, DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) and epigenetic transcription-related genes in the liver and heart of foetal goats during gestation. A total of 24 Liuyang black goats (2.0±0.3 yr) with similar body weight (BW, 31.22±8.09 kg) and parity (2) were allocated equally to either a control group (CG) or a restriction group (RG) during both early (from 26 to 65 days) and late (from 96 to 135 days) gestation. All goats were fed a mixed diet and had free access to fresh water. The feed of the RG was 40% less than that of the CG. The early and late gestation goats were weighed, bled and slaughtered on days 65 and 135 of gestation, respectively. In early gestation, the foetal weight, body length, the weight of foetal heart and liver were greater (P 0.05) in the RG. The CpG methylation of genomic DNA in the foetal heart was less (P = 0.0001) in the RG. The relative abundance of mRNA of methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2 (MBD2) and methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 3 (MBD3) genes in the foetal liver were greater (P 0.05) in the RG. During the late gestation, the foetal weight, heart weight and liver weight were less (P 0.05) in the RG. The relative abundance of mRNA for the MBD2 gene (P = 0.043) in the foetal heart, and the ten-eleven translocation protein 1 (TET1) gene (P 0.05) in both the foetal heart and liver were greater in the RG. These results indicate feed intake restriction during gestation influenced foetal development and regulated the relative abundance of mRNA for epigenetic transcription-related genes.

A total of twenty-four healthy twin-bearing Liuyang black goats were allocated to two trials. In Trial 1, twelve goats received either the control diet (CG, n 6, 100 % feed) or restricted diet (RG, n 6, 60 % feed of CG) from gestation days 26 to 65 after synchronisation. In Trial 2, the remaining goats were randomly and equally divided into two treatments: CG and RG from days 95 to 125 of gestation. Placental traits, fetal weight, serum parameters, nitric oxide (NO), angiogenesis gene expression and cotyledon proteome were measured at the end of each trial. In early pregnancy, the total and relative weights of placenta, uterine caruncle and cotyledon, as well as fetus, were increased (PPPPP

A dependence between dietary protein and starch levels flowing to the duodenum has been characterized in monogastric animals for optimal enzymatic secretions of the pancreas, but those in ruminants remain unclarified. The present experiment was conveyed to assess the pancreas growth and mRNA expression of the small intestine enzymes in growing goats fed a low-protein diet. Twenty-four Liuyang goats (19.55 ± 3.55 of body weight (BW)) and aged approximately 8 months were randomly assigned to either a control protein diet (NP: 10.77% CP) or a low-protein diet (LP: 5.52% CP) for 70 days. The results show that no statistical differences (p &gt, 0.05) were observed in the pancreas growth indices between the groups. Pancreas and small intestine α-amylase and lipase activities were unaffected (p &gt, 0.05) by the LP diet, while activities of trypsin and chymotrypsin were decreased (p &lt, 0.05). The LP diet reduced (p &lt, 0.05) the mRNA expressions of trypsin and chymotrypsin in the duodenum and jejunum, and had no effects (p &gt, 0.05) on the mRNA expressions of α-amylase and lipase. Goats fed with the LP diet had higher (p &lt, 0.05) concentrations of cholecystokinin and insulin than those fed with the NP diet. In conclusion, feeding an LP diet (5.52% CP) had no profound influence on pancreas growth and digestive enzyme synthesis in goats.

How short-chain fatty acids (FAs) affect cell membrane morphology and milk fat biosynthesis in mammary epithelial cells (MECs) is yet unclear. This study investigated the primary bovine MEC response to different FAs. We observed that the cell surface ultrastructures were influenced by chain length and degree of saturability of FAs. The CD36, FATP1, and FABP3 gene expression was affected independent of the type of FA. FASN, LPIN1, PPARα, and PPARγ transcripts were more sensitive to the short-chain FAs (acetic and β-hydroxybutyric acids). Furthermore, short-chain FAs inclined to regulate FA degradation-, elongation-, and metabolism-associated pathways, while long-chain FAs (stearic and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linolenic acids) modulated extracellular matrix-receptor interaction-, transcriptional misregulation-, microRNA-, and ribosome biogenesis-related pathways. However, triacylglycerol accumulation in the cytoplasm was not changed by all of the FAs. Overall, FAs with different chain lengths and degrees of saturability could differentially alter primary bovine MEC cell morphology and influence protein profiles involved in milk fat synthesis pathways.

This study investigated the in vitro fermentation of three cereal straws (corn stover, wheat straw, and rice straw) with culture media containing two nonionic surfactants (alkyl polyglycoside and Tween 80) and variable surface tension (42, 48, and 54 mN/m) in a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement. The in vitro dry matter degradation of rice straw and corn straw linearly (P

The phytobiotic Macleaya cordata extract (MCE) has been widely used as a natural growth promoter in livestock production to alleviate intestinal inflammatory response. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary MCE inclusion on the transcriptomes and changes of immune function in the intestinal tract of early weaned goats. Twelve kid goats (with an average age 30 ± 2 d after birth) were selected and randomly assigned to the control group (CON, providing starter feed) and MAC group (starter feed with MCE at 0.3 g/d), and were harvested at d 46 of the experiment to collect ileal and colonic tissue samples for subsequent analyses. Colonic transcriptome analyses showed upregulated differential expressed genes (DEGs) mainly enriched in immune related processes including TNF signaling pathway, phagosome and NF-κB signaling pathway, however, downregulated DEGs involved in pancreatic secretion and bile secretion. To validate the DEGs mentioned above, we performed quantitative real-time PCR to determine the expression of genes in Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway (including TNF and NF-κB signaling pathway). Dietary MCE inclusion only affected (P

This trial was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding system and age on morphological development (including villus height, crypt depth, and ratio of villus height to crypt depth) and expression of hexose transporters (i.e., SGLT1, GLUT2 and GLUT5) in different segments of the small intestine of goat kids. A total of 40 Liuyang black goat kids were randomly slaughtered at 0, 7, 28, 42, 56 and 70 days of age. There were two feeding systems [i.e., supplemental feeding (S) and grazing (G)] from 28 to 70 days of age. Duodenal, jejunal and ileal tissues were collected to measure the villus height and crypt depth. Mucosa samples were taken to quantify mRNA or protein expression of sodium-dependent glucose-linked transporter-1 (SGLT1), facilitated glucose/fructose transporter 2 (GLUT2), and facilitated glucose transporter 5 (GLUT5). Villus height was not affected ( P > 0.05) by feeding system, and crypt depth was only affected ( P P = 0.006) with increasing age in the duodenum, whereas it decreased as age increased in the jejunum ( P = 0.040) and ileum ( P P P P

In non-ruminants, sweet taste receptor and monosaccharide transporters are important components of nutrient chemosensing in the intestinal tracts. Ruminants, however, have evolved a polygastric digestive system linked to a transition in nutrient supply from readily-digestible carbohydrate (lactose) in milk during the pre-ruminant suckling phase to poorly-digestible structural carbohydrates when the rumen becomes functional. Whether these developmental and feed changes alter the mRNA expression of genes related to monosaccharide sensing (Taste receptor family 1 member 2, T1R2; Taste receptor family 1 member 3, T1R3) and transporting (monosaccharide transporters Na+/glucose co-transporter, SGLT1; glucose activated ion channel, SGLT3; solute carrier family 2 member 5, GLUT5; solute carrier family 2 member 2, GLUT2) are unknown. This study investigates the expression of sweet taste receptors (T1R2 and T1R3) and monosaccharides transporters (SGLT1, SGLT3, GLUT5 and GLUT2) along the gastrointestinal tracts (GIT) during different stages of development (suckling, weaning and grazing) in goats. The results showed that the expression of T1R2 decreased with age, and was mainly expressed in the duodenum and jejunum. Although T1R3 expression in different GIT segments fluctuated during growth, there was an increase with age, with the abomasum showing the greatest expression. Both SGLT1 and SGLT3 were mainly expressed in the jejunum at all ages, with the greatest expression in the middle jejunum during suckling, and decreased greatly (P

The objective of this study was to determine whether 13 C labeling occurs in goats fed diets with different natural levels of 13 C enrichment and, if so, to use 13 C as a label to determine true amino acid (AA) digestibility. Thirty-six Xiangdong black goats with initial body weights of 7.5 ± 0.5 kg were selected as experimental animals and fed dietary treatments consisting of wheat, barley, and soybeans (C3 diet) or corn, sorghum grain, and sugar cane (C4 diet). The 13 C abundance of the amino acid fraction (AAF) of the C3 and C4 diets had average delta 13 C values of −28.57‰ and −12.93‰, respectively. Three goats/treatment were slaughtered on days 1, 28, 56 and 84 during the labeling phase, and the AAFs of organs were analyzed for 13 C abundance. 13 C in the blood AAF increased (−21.70‰, −22.65‰, −23.59‰, and −24.43‰, respectively) with increasing feeding durations in goats fed the C3 diet and decreased (−21.13‰, −16.01‰, −13.78‰, and −12.03‰, respectively) in goats fed the C4 diet. Longissimus dorsi, liver and wool AAFs showed similar trends to those observed in the blood. Each tissue showed a significant dietary treatment effect ( P P 13 C abundance. 13 C abundance of the blood AAF was used as an index of endogenous protein labeling. Apparent and true protein digestibilities in the forestomach, whole intestine and whole digestive tract were not different ( P > 0.05) between the diet treatment groups. The levels of true protein digestibility in the forestomach, whole intestine and whole digestive tract in goats fed the C4 diet tended to be higher than for those in goats fed the C3 diet. On average, the true digestibilities of protein, essential AAs and nonessential AAs were 5.30%, 4.28% 3.17% (forestomach), 5.20%, 5.39% 3.75% (whole intestine) and 3.01%, 4.97%, 4.17% (whole digestive tract) higher, respectively, than the apparent digestibilities of these components in goats fed the C3 diet. In summary, goat tissue protein was labeled with 13 C using different diets, and the results show that 13 C can be used to determine true AA digestibility.

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of Momordica charantia saponin (MCS) on ruminal fermentation of maize stover and abundance of selected microbial populations in vitro. Five levels of MCS supplements (0, 0.01, 0.06, 0.30, 0.60 mg/mL) were tested. The pH, NH3-N, and volatile fatty acid were measured at 6, 24, 48 h of in vitro mixed incubation fluids, whilst the selected microbial populations were determined at 6 and 24 h. The high dose of MCS increased the initial fractional rate of degradation at t-value = 0 (FRD0) and the fractional rate of gas production (k), but decreased the theoretical maximum of gas production (V F) and the half-life (t0.5) compared with the control. The NH3-N concentration reached the lowest concentration with 0.01 mg MCS/mL at 6 h. The MSC inclusion increased (p

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of maternal nutritional restriction on fetal growth and bone metabolism in early pregnancy. Twelve twin-bearing goats (Xiangdong black goats) in second pregnancy, with similar weight (31.2 ± 8.1 kg) and age (2.0 ± 0.3 year) were assigned to two dietary treatments in early gestation (26–65 days): control group (CON, 100% feed) and intake restriction group (IR, 60% of CON intake). The umbilical blood, right femur and liver of the fetuses were sampled on day 65 to determine the bone metabolism indicators and expression of genes involved in bone development. Maternal intake restriction did not affect the growth performance of pregnancies (P > 0.05), increased (P

Methane produced from formate is one of the important methanogensis pathways in the rumen. However, quantitative information of CH4 production from formate has been rarely reported. The aim of this study was to characterize the conversion rate (CR) of formic acid into CH4 and CO2 by rumen microorganisms. Ground lucerne hay was incubated with buffered ruminal fluid for 6, 12, 24 and 48 h. Before the incubation, 13C-labeled H13COOH was also supplied into the incubation bottle at a dose of 0, 1.5, 2.2 or 2.9 mg/g of DM substrate. There were no interactions (Pgt;0.05) between dose and incubation time for all variables evaluated. When expressed as an absolute amount (ml in gas sample) or a relative CR (%), both 13CH4 and 13CO2 production quadratically increased (Plt;0.01) with the addition of H13COOH. The total 13C (13CH4 and 13CO2) CR was also quadratically increased (Plt;0.01) when H13COOH was added. Moreover, formate addition linearly decreased (Plt;0.031) the concentrations of NH3-N, total and individual volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate and butyrate), and quadratically decreased (Plt;0.014) the populations of protozoa, total methanogens, Methanosphaera stadtmanae, Methanobrevibacter ruminantium M1, Methanobrevibacter smithii and Methanosarcina barkeri. In summary, formate affects ruminal fermentation and methanogenesis, as well as the rumen microbiome, in particular microorganisms which are directly or indirectly involved in ruminal methanogenesis. This study provides quantitative verification for the rapid dissimilation of formate into CH4 and CO2 by rumen microorganisms.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of the dietary ratio of ruminal degraded protein (RDP) to ruminal undegraded protein (RUP) and the dry matter intake (DMI) on the intestinal flows of endogenous nitrogen (N) and amino acids (AA) in goats. The experiment was designed as a 4×4 Latin square using four ruminally, duodenally and ileally cannulated goats. The treatments were arranged in a 2×2 factorial design; two ratios of RDP to RUP (65:35 and 45:55, RDP1 and RDP2, respectively) and two levels at 95% and 75% of voluntary feed intake (DMI1 and DMI2, respectively) were fed to the goats. There were no significant differences in the N intake, duodenal flow of total N, undegraded feed N, microbial N, endogenous N or ileal flow of endogenous N, but the duodenal and ileal flow of endogenous N numerically decreased by approximately 22% and 9%, respectively, when the feed intake changed from DMI1 (0.63 kg/d) to DMI2 (0.50 kg/d). The dietary ratio of RDP to RUP had significant effects (p0.05) on the ileal flows of endogenous leucine, phenylalanine and cysteine. The present results implied that the duodenal flows of endogenous N and AA decreased when the dietary RDP to RUP ratio and DMI decreased, and the flow of endogenous AA at the ileum also decreased when the DMI decreased but increased with decreasing RDP to RUP ratios.

Nutritional status during mid-gestation is often ignored under extensive husbandry. This study aimed to examine the effect of maternal undernutrition during mid-gestation on kid meat production under an extensive system. Twenty-seven goats (45 &plusmn, 3 d of gestation) were randomly assigned to an unrestricted group (100% of nutrient requirements), or a restricted group (60% of nutrient requirements from 45 to 100 d of gestation, and then re-alimented to 100%). Among the offspring, 16 eligible kids (eight per treatment) were selected, based on birth type and survival, and were harvested to evaluate the meat yield, quality, and composition at 90 d after birth. Maternal undernutrition reduced the body weight and size, average daily gain and hot carcass weight of the kids (p &lt, 0.05). The lightness of the meat at 45 min postmortem was increased (p = 0.029) in the restricted kids. Apart from an increase in tyrosine concentration (p = 0.046), the proximate composition and the amino acid and fatty acid profiles were unaffected in the restricted kids (p &gt, 0.05). Overall, maternal undernutrition during mid-gestation decreased the yield of kid meat, but did not significantly modify the quality and composition. These results highlight the importance of nutrient status during mid-gestation in the meat production of small ruminants under an extensive regime.

Effects of energy, protein, or both energy and protein restriction on gastrointestinal morphological development were investigated in 60 Liuyang Black kids, which were sourced from local farms and weaned at 28 d of age. Weaned kids were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 4 dietary treatments (15 kids per treatment), which consisted of adequate nutrient supply (CON), energy restriction (ER), protein restriction (PR), or energy and protein restriction (EPR). The entire experiment included adaptation period (0 to 6 d), nutritional restriction period (7 to 48 d), and recovery period (49 to 111 d). Three kids from each group were killed at d 48 and 111, and the rumen, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were harvested. On d 48 (end of nutritional restriction), lengths of the duodenum (P = 0.005), jejunum (P = 0.003), and ileum (P = 0.003), and weights of the rumen (P = 0.004), duodenum (P = 0.006), jejunum (P = 0.006), and ileum (P = 0.004) of kids in ER, PR, and EPR were less than those of kids in CON. Compared with CON, PR decreased papillae width (P = 0.03) and surface area (P = 0.05) of the rumen epithelium, villus surface area (P = 0.05), and N concentration (P = 0.02) of the jejunum mucosa on d 48. Compared with CON, EPR decreased papillae height (P = 0.001), width (P = 0.001), and surface area (P = 0.003), N concentration (P = 0.01), and the ratio of N to DNA (P = 0.03) of the rumen epithelium. Compared with CON, EPR also decreased villus height (P = 0.01), width (P = 0.006), and surface area (P = 0.006), N concentration (P < 0.001), and the ratio of N to DNA (P < 0.001) of the jejunum mucosa on d 48. On d 111 (end of nutritional recovery), lengths of the duodenum (P = 0.001), jejunum (P = 0.001), and ileum (P = 0.001), weights of the rumen (P < 0.001), duodenum (P = 0.001), jejunum (P < 0.001), and ileum (P < 0.001) of kids in ER, PR, and EPR were still less than those of kids in CON; N concentrations of rumen epithelium of kids in PR (P = 0.01) and EPR (P = 0.001), and the ratio of N to DNA of jejunum mucosa of kids in EPR (P < 0.001) were greater than those of kids in CON. Results indicate that nutritional restriction of 6 wk can retard gastrointestinal morphological development for kids weaned at 28 d of age and retarded development remains evident, even after nutritional recovery of 9 wk.

BACKGROUND This study aimed to investigate the regulatory effects of L-theanine on secretion of immune cytokines, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and mRNA expression of phospholipase C (PLC) in rats, and to explore its regulatory mechanism in immune function. MATERIAL AND METHODS Sixty-four Sprague-Dawley rats received daily intragastric infusion of different doses of L-theanine solution [0, 50 (LT), 200 (MT), and 400 (HT) mg/kg BW]. Cytokines, immunoglobulins, and hormones in the serum, neurotransmitters, and mRNA expression of PLC in the relevant tissues were assayed. RESULTS L-theanine administration increased the splenic organ index and decreased the contents of ILs-4/6/10 and the ratio of IL-4/IFN-γ in the serum. High-dose L-theanine administration increased the levels of dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in the pituitary and hippocampus, resulting in decrease in corticosterone level in the serum. L-theanine administration decreased the mRNA expressions of PLC isomers in the liver and PLC-γ1 and PLC-δ1 in the spleen. Interestingly, mRNA expressions of PLC-β1 in the spleen and PLC isomers mRNA in the heart were up-regulated by L-theanine administration. CONCLUSIONS Administration of 400 mg/kg BWL-theanine improved immune function of the rats by increasing the splenic weight, altering the Th2/Th1 cytokine balance, decreasing the corticosterone level in the serum, elevating dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in the brain, and regulating the mRNA expression of PLC isomers in the heart.

The effects of dietary phosphorus (P) variation on nutrient digestion, endogenous loss and plasma parameters were investigated in sixteen Liuyang black wether goats (8 months of age and average BW of 15 ± 0.25 kg) using a completely randomized design. The factors were phosphorus deficient in diet (1.41 g/kg DM, PDD) and phosphorus adequate in diet (PAD1.59, 1.77 and 1.92 g/kg DM, PAD1, PAD2 and PAD3). The results showed that increasing dietary P content increased the duodenal flow of dry matter (DM) (P 0.05) on apparent digestibility of DM, OM and nitrogen (N) digestion. Intestinal P digestibility linearly decreased (P 0.05) was noted in fecal endogenous P loss, which ranged from 0.767 to 0.884 g/kg DMI or 0.372 to 0.473 g/d, and true dietary P digestibility, which ranged from 42.9 to 51.2%, for PDD and PAD, but the proportion of endogenous P in feces tended (P 0.05) in plasma Calcitonin (CT), fibroblast growth factor 2,3 (FGF2,3), Parathormone (PTH), Thyroxine (T4), Ca and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) concentrations. These results indicated that slight deficiency of dietary P had no significant effects on nutrient digestion. Insulin may be a regulator in phosphate absorption or re-absorption by ruminants.

The mammary gland of dairy cows is a formidable lipid-synthesizing machine for lactation. This unique function depends on the activities of plasma membrane (PM) proteins in mammary cells. Little information is known about the expression profiles of PM proteins and their functions during the lactating process. This study investigated the proteome map of PM fractions of mammary gland in lactating cows using 1D-Gel-LC-MS/MS and identified 872 nonredundant proteins with 141 unknown proteins, wherein 215 were PM-associated proteins. Most of the PM-associated proteins were binding, transport, and catalytic proteins such as annexin proteins, heat shock proteins, integrins, RAS oncogene family members, and S100 calcium binding proteins. The PM-associated pathways such as caveolae-mediated endocytosis, leukocyte extravasation, aldosterone signaling in epithelial cells, and remodeling of epithelial adherens junctions were also significantly over-represented. Proteomic analysis revealed the characteristics and predicted functions of PM proteins isolated from the lactating bovine mammary gland. These results further provide experimental evidence for the presence of many proteins predicted in the annotated bovine genome. The data generated here also provide a reference for the PM-related functional research in the mammary gland of lactating cows.