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Additive manufacturing (AM) platforms allow the production of patient tissue engineering scaffolds with desirable architectures. Although AM platforms offer exceptional control on architecture, post-processing methods such as sintering and freeze-drying often deform the printed scaffold structure. In-situ 4D imaging can be used to analyze changes that occur during post-processing. Visualization and analysis of changes in selected volumes of interests (VOIs) over time are essential to understand the underlining mechanisms of scaffold deformations. Yet, automated detection and tracking of VOIs in the 3D printed scaffold over time using 4D image data is currently an unsolved image processing task. This paper proposes a new image processing technique to segment, detect and track volumes of interest in 3D printed tissue engineering scaffolds. The method is validated using a 4D synchrotron sourced microCT image data captured during the sintering of bioactive glass scaffolds in-situ. The proposed method will contribute to the development of scaffolds with controllable designs and optimum properties for the development of patient-specific scaffolds.

This material provides the following Supplementary Methods and Results. Section S1: Sample preparation; Section S2: Image segmentation; Section S3: Fetal vascular analysis; Section S4: Maternal porous region analysis; Section S5: Fetal tissue analysis; Section S6: Stereological study; Section S7: Validation of U-Net segmentation; Section S8: Characteristics of transport in the intervillous space; Section S9: Uncertainty quantification of structural metrics in a disordered porous medium. The associated datasets and computational codes are publicly available in the repositories (https://empiar.org/10562/, https://empiar.org/10563, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4249627, https://github.com/DiamondLightSource/python-placental-imaging).

Inorganic sol-gel solutions were electrospun to produce the first bioactive three-dimensional (3-D) scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration with a structure like cotton-wool (or cotton candy). This flexible 3-D fibrous structure is ideal for packing into complex defects. It also has large inter-fiber spaces to promote vascularization, penetration of cells and transport of nutrients throughout the scaffold. The 3-D fibrous structure was obtained by electrospinning, where the applied electric field and the instabilities exert tremendous force on the spinning jet, which is required to be viscoelastic to prevent jet break up. Previously, polymer binding agents were used with inorganic solutions to produce electrospun composite two-dimensional fibermats, requiring calcination to remove the polymer. This study presents novel reaction and processing conditions for producing a viscoelastic inorganic sol-gel solution that results in fibers by the entanglement of the intermolecularly overlapped nanosilica species in the solution, eliminating the need for a binder. Three-dimensional cotton-wool-like structures were only produced when solutions containing calcium nitrate were used, suggesting that the charge of the Ca2+ ions had a significant effect. The resulting bioactive silica fibers had a narrow diameter range of 0.5-2 μm and were nanoporous. A hydroxycarbonate apatite layer was formed on the fibers within the first 12 h of soaking in simulated body fluid. MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cells cultured on the fibers showed no adverse cytotoxic effect and they were observed to attach to and spread in the material. © 2014 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.