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Both when designing new and when evaluating existing structures, methods of analysis must be based on established engineering theory and practice. Also, the general principles of structural reliability regarding the treatment of uncertainties when verifying the established requirements apply to both, design and assessment. Taking further into account that new or existing civil engineering works are usually unique, either because they are prototypes or because they are exposed to specific conditions, from an engineering point of view, structural analysis and verification must be carried out, both in the design and in the assessment, under case-specific conditions according to the same principles. However, important differences exist between assessment and design, for example regarding the state of information and its updating through different types of information, the structural condition, reliability requirements, verification methods or decision options. Such differences, which are briefly summarized in the contribution, can often lead to a high level of conservatism when using design-oriented methods for assessment purposes. There is therefore a need to develop a generally recognized, coherent and harmonized set of rules for the assessment of existing structures. The CEN Technical Specification for assessment and retrofitting partially closes this gap, but only establishes principles on assessmentspecific reliability aspects. The consistent application of these generic assessment rules in practice requires further assumptions, or even case-specific developments. Practical applications are therefore of paramount importance in identifying relevant issues to consider in the future development of assessment methods and codes.

La evaluación de las estructuras existentes es un tema prioritario, de gran importancia económica, en un número creciente de países de todo el mundo ya que en muchos lugares una parte cada vez mayor del mercado de la construcción se centra en las actuaciones relacionadas con edificios, puentes y otras obras de ingeniería civil que ya existen. Actualmente, los Eurocódigos, que se utilizarán en todos los estados miembro del Comité Europeo de Normalización, CEN, y posiblemente en más y más países fuera de este espacio, están principalmente enfocados al proyecto de nuevas estructuras. El empleo de métodos orientados al dimensionado para evaluar las estructuras existentes a menudo conduce a un alto grado de conservadurismo. Las consecuencias económicas, ecológicas y sociopolíticas podrían ser significativas si se condenaran como inseguras unas estructuras cuyas prestaciones son satisfactorias, llevando a una inversión innecesaria de recursos en su rehabilitación o desmantelamiento y sustitución. Por esta razón, la evaluación de las estructuras existentes a menudo requiere el uso de métodos refinados que van más allá del alcance de las reglas normalizadas para el proyecto de nuevas estructuras. Consecuentemente, en los últimos 20 años, se han desarrollado métodos para la evaluación de las estructuras existentes en muchos países a nivel nacional. Sin embargo, estos métodos aún no se han coordinado entre sí y su implementación en la práctica diaria suele ser escasa. Existe por ello una necesidad urgente de fusionar los diversos enfoques nacionales en un conjunto de reglas generalmente aceptadas, coherentes y armonizadas para las estructuras existentes que complementen las reglas para el proyecto de nuevas estructuras. CEN tomó la iniciativa de iniciar un proyecto para desarrollar nuevas normas técnicas europeas para la evaluación y la rehabilitación de las estructuras existentes. Está previsto que el desarrollo de la parte correspondiente del Eurocódigo se logre en tres pasos. Ya se han completado dos de estos pasos, a saber, la preparación de un Informe Científico y de Política y, una vez adoptado por los Organismos Nacionales de Normalización de los estados miembro, la conversión de este documento en una Especificación Técnica de CEN. El tercer paso, la evolución de la Especificación Técnica en una Parte del Eurocódigo, EN, está actualmente en progreso. Sobre este trasfondo, en el presente artículo se analizan las diferencias más relevantes entre la evaluación y el proyecto desde el punto de vista de la fiabilidad estructural y se identifican algunos aspectos que deberían dar lugar a unas reglas adicionales en futuras normas dedicadas a las estructuras existentes.

In bridge planning, the successful translation of the many conditioning factors into a solution that meets all safety requirements while also addressing considerations such as economy and elegance ...

The article first examines the current spatial and landscape concepts that have emerged in the context of the «spatial turn» in the social sciences and humanities. Subsequently, the role of landscape in the sustainability discourse is discussed in relation to its archive function as well as to the stability of habitats. Furthermore, the highly interdisciplinary character of the subject « cultural landscape» will be highlighted. Finally, the phenomenological educational approach of Wolfgang Klafki with its combination of objective and subjective aspects will be taken up, as we can see in the landscape and its perception.

Since the successful translation of many constraints into an aesthetically appealing as well as reliable, functional and cost-effective structure is primarily a question of sound conceptual design, the importance of this step in the design process as a whole cannot be overstated. Nonetheless, the growing complexity of analysis and verification methods, materials technology and construction procedures is driving ever greater specialisation against a backdrop of increasingly extensive and opaque standardisation and control systems. Such specialisation comes at the expense of conceptual design training in engineering schools and consequently of structural engineers’ creativity and other skills necessary to create compelling designs for structures. The rules for ensuring robustness reflect the increasing complexity and opacity characterising structural design codes. While the practical importance of designing and building robust structures is universally acknowledged, the codes presently in place are often vague or confusing. Cross-referencing, in turn, may lead to loops around rules that, confounding engineers, are counterproductive. At the same time, however, that lack of clarity may afford opportunities for innovative solutions by building items that ensure robustness into the conceptual design of a structure. This paper proposes an operational design process that deals appropriately with all factors of structural performance, including robustness, without compromising bridge economy or elegance. That process, which combines several robustness strategies, including risk- based considerations, is illustrated with a case study.

Marie-Claude Schöpfer Pfaffen: Verkehrspolitik im Mittelalter. Bernische und Walliser Akteure, Netzwerke und Strategien (Vorträge und Forschungen, Sonderband 55). Hg. vom Konstanzer Arbeitskreis für mittelalterliche Geschichte. Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke Verlag 2011. 374 S., etwa 14 z. T. farb. Abb. ISBN 978-3-7995-6765-7. € 58,–

The relatively high failure rates, with important consequences in many cases, suggest that the implicitly acceptable risk levels corresponding to temporary civil engineering structures and activities might exceed the bounds of normally acceptable levels associated with different societal activities. Among other reasons, this may be attributed to the lack of a rational approach for the assessment of risks associated with the different technologies supporting these activities in general, and for structures in particular. There is a need for establishing appropriate target reliability levels for structures under temporary use taking into account specific circumstances such as reduced risk exposure times. This issue is being addressed in this article. Acceptance criteria for building‐structure‐related risks to persons obtained in prior studies are adapted to the special circumstances of nonpermanent risk exposure. Thereby, the general principle followed is to maintain the same risk levels per time unit as for permanently occupied buildings. The adaptation is based on the statistical annual fatality rate, a life safety risk metric that allows for a consistent comparison of risks across different societal activities and technologies. It is shown that the target reliability indices taking account of the temporary use of buildings might be significantly higher than the values suggested for permanently used structures.

Las normas estructurales actuales, como los Eurocódigos, no proporcionan un marco coherente para el diseño o evaluación de las estructuras en condiciones de uso temporal. Los requisitos de fiabilidad de los sistemas temporales propuestos en el presente estudio pretenden garantizar los mismos niveles de riesgo aceptables por unidad de tiempo que para las estructuras permanentes en las mejores prácticas actuales. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que el índice de fiabilidad para los elementos estructurales aumenta significativamente con la disminución de los tiempos de exposición al riesgo. Por el contrario, los valores de diseño para las acciones variables pueden reducirse en función de la duración de construcción, como se ilustra en un caso práctico: el análisis de un sistema de andamiaje móvil para el montaje de un puente.

With the growth and ageing of the stock of existing structures, structural assessment and retrofitting are fast acquiring a significant role in the construction industry. The benefits of upgrading existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures or extending their service life and of ensuring greater durability in designs for de novo construction have led to a need to include deterioration as a factor in structural safety models. Bond between reinforcing steel and concrete is of cardinal importance in this respect. The present paper proposes a unified formulation for assessing bond strength in corroded and non-corroded steel bars, and an associated model to accommodate the effect of transverse pressure where appropriate. The formulation is the result of applying multiple linear regression analysis to a database built from the findings of over 650 bond tests on corroded and non-corroded reinforcing steel reported in the literature. The data collected include a wide range of variables affecting bond strength, such as bar diameter, concrete compressive strength, concrete cover, anchorage length, confinement ratio and cross-sectional loss. A number of statistical criteria are used to compare the proposed formulation to the other bond strength assessment models, including the fib Model Code 2010 proposal for corroded steel bars. Further to the statistical tests conducted, the model proposed can be usefully applied to assess the structural safety of corroded RC members.

Many key aspects of bridge design are governed by site-related, geometric, functional and constructional constraints. Economy is yet another decisive factor in public works, whilst enhanced...

Accidental hazards are associated with large uncertainties regarding their occurrence probability, their effects on a structure and the possible consequences these effects might entail in case of failure. Consequently, decision-making related to safety accounting for such hazards is difficult and prone to be based on irrational grounds. Gas explosions in buildings are a good example therefore. Although dealt with in many codes, they are seldom accounted for in design of building structures. As a consequence, the associated risks are often ignored or sometimes consciously accepted. If this is a justified practice cannot be easily judged however, since under the implicit approach adopted in practice for assuring structural safety the risks are not quantified nor are the acceptable risk levels established. On this background, the paper explores methods and tools for the practical application of explicit risk analysis in connection with the effects of gas explosions on RC structures. A procedure is established to determine structure-related risks to persons and applied to a representative set of structures designed according to current best practice. Target reliabilities for the design of key elements are deduced from the findings. Such target values facilitate rational decisions on both, the need and the appropriate choice of risk-reduction measures to counteract the effects of gas explosions in buildings.

In spite of their importance for structural performance, robustness considerations are not substantiated in detail in current codes and standards. Going out from this unsatisfactory situation, a practical approach for a risk-based design of robust structures is suggested in the present contribution. The proposal, which may also be adapted for the assessment of existing structures, generally envisages continuous, ductile structural systems due to their inherent advantages for persistent and identified accidental design situations, such as moment redistribution capacity and energy dissipation. In order to avoid progressive collapse given the occurrence of local failure due to unidentified accidental actions, either alternative load paths or predefined collapse mechanisms should be built into such systems. A procedure is proposed to achieve coincidence between assumed and real mechanisms in case of key member failure. For the design or assessment of such key members, risk-based target reliability indices are provided considering both, persistent and accidental situations.

The assessment of an existing structure to determine its suitability for present and future use entails different sorts of problems than encountered when designing new structures. The differences revolve essentially around the nature of the information available. In existing structures, deteriorated or otherwise, the accuracy of the models used for such assessments can usually be improved by acquiring more data. The most accurate way to find actual load and resistance would be to conduct a probabilistic analysis using site data. This is a time-consuming process, however, calling for a working knowledge of probabilistic methods that may not be suited to everyday use by practising engineers. For this reason, in the past few years various studies have been conducted to develop assessment approaches, compatible with Eurocodes, which include the same verification format as normally applied for designing new structures. In this paper, the application of several of these approaches is illustrated by means of the reliability verification of one of the main beams of the reinforced concrete structure of an industrial building from the 1940s, recently transformed into a cultural centre. The obtained results are discussed and compared to the findings of a full probabilistic analysis.

In routine engineering practice, the risks associated with safety considerations addressed when designing new or assessing existing structures are not quantified and the corresponding acceptance criteria may diverge widely. Although the use of explicit risk analysis methods to quantify structural safety would therefore deliver significant benefits, the implementation of such methods is hindered by a series of technical and administrative obstacles. The present study explores methods and tools for the practical application of explicit risk analysis methods. Structure-related risks to persons are established on the grounds of the probability of structural failure and its consequences in terms of loss of human life. The procedure adopted is applied to a representative set of building structures. Acceptance criteria for risks to persons associated with such structures are deduced from the findings. These criteria provide a rational basis for decision-making in structural engineering. They may be used in explicit risk analysis or as a basis for the consistent calibration of simplified models for determining partial factors in the design of new or assessment of existing structures.

Many key aspects of a bridge project are governed by construction site-related, geometric, functional and constructional constraints. Furthermore, economy is a decisive factor in public works and, with respect to bridge aesthetics, there is an increasing demand for more than just utilitarian structures. Such exacting boundary conditions often spur careful and indeed even innovative structural design. Since the successful translation of numerous constraints into a reliable, functional, cost-effective and aesthetically attractive structure is primarily a question of consistent conceptual design, the importance of this step in the design process as a whole cannot be overstated. A suitable choice of structural system, foundations, deck crosssection and constitutive materials on the one hand, and manufacturing and assembly procedures on the other, usually yields a cost-effective solution that meets structural safety and serviceability requirements. In addition, an appropriate balance needs to be reached between economy and aesthetics.

An otherwise asymptomatic 66-year-old British Caucasian female with a history of breast cancer was referred by the oncologists due to progressively abnormal liver function tests (LFTs). After undergoing wide local excision and axillary dissection she was started on the anti-oestrogen drug Arimidex (anastrozole) as the tumour cells were oestrogen receptor positive. With a background of normal LFTs, an absence of risk factors for chronic liver disease and otherwise good health, 6 months after starting Arimidex the oncology team noted deranged LFTs. Her hepatitis screening including hepatitis A-C, HSV, HIV, CMV and EBV serology and metabolic screening was negative. Liver ultrasound was essentially normal.The autoimmune screening was positive for ANA (1:160) and weakly positive for anti-smooth muscle antibody (1:80). A liver biopsy demonstrated heavy portal tract inflammation, associated interface hepatitis, and numerous necroinflammatory foci throughout the liver parenchyma. There was also a moderate to marked mixed inflammatory infiltrate of mainly plasma cells and lymphocytes with scattered eosinophils and neutrophils, which best reflects drug-induced liver injury (DILI), although potentially could also correspond with autoimmune hepatitis.The exact mechanism of liver injury from anastrazole is not very clear, but metabolic and immune-mediated damage and individual susceptibility are likely involved in what are often idiosyncratic reactions. The type of cellular immune recruitment (e.g., T-helper cells) reflects the chronicity of injury, with the potential to prolonged liver derangement months or years beyond the period of drug exposure such that DILI may mimic and/or cause drug-induced autoimmune hepatitis.

Resumen El proyecto de Ampliacion del Complejo Ferroviario de Atocha Fase I se desarrolla con el principal objetivo de permitir la puesta en servicio de un nuevo modelo de explotacion ferroviaria a fin de incrementar la capacidad de la estacion de Puerta de Atocha, separando los flujos de llegadas y salidas. Se describen a continuacion los antecedentes, el ambito de la ampliacion y los motivos de la misma, asi como los principales elementos estructurales y las actuaciones mas significativas realizadas dentro del proyecto de ampliacion, distinguiendo entre las intervenciones realizadas en las vias y las llevadas a cabo sobre la estructura del edificio ya existente. Asimismo, se detallan algunas consideraciones sobre las acciones aplicadas en el calculo de las nuevas marquesinas y sobre los analisis realizados mediante calculo dinamico de fluidos para verificar los coeficientes de presion adoptados inicialmente a partir de extrapolaciones de normativas de acciones vigentes, dada la compleja geometria de las nuevas cubiertas de la estacion de Atocha. Por ultimo, se describen la logistica y la planificacion realizadas durante la ejecucion de las obras, teniendo en cuenta todos los escenarios posibles y la necesidad de simultanear una gran cantidad de actividades en un espacio y tiempo limitados (cortes de tension, cajas de vias, trabajos con lineas de alta tension…). La complejidad de este estudio ha sido enorme, considerando las excepcionales limitaciones derivadas de las necesidades de explotacion de la estacion de AVE durante la fase de ejecucion del proyecto.

Stage I of the enlargement of Atocha Railway Station aimed primarily to adapt the facility to a new operating model, raising the station's capacity essentially by separating arriving and departing passenger traffic. This article describes the project background, scope and justification, as well as the main structural members and most significant works involved in the enlargement, distinguishing between construction in platforms and tracks and existing facility restructuring. In light of the complex geometry of the new roofs over Atocha Station, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques were deployed to verify the pressure coefficients initially adopted for the new platform canopies by extrapolation from the existing legislation. The structural engineering involved is addressed. Lastly, logistics and planning are discussed, with an account of all the possible scenarios and the challenge of performing many activities simultaneously on a tight schedule in limited quarters (power outages, track beds, high voltage works,…). The exceptional constraints inherent in the need to maintain high-speed train (“AVE”) service during the works intensified the overall complexity.

The courthouse at El Ejido has a trapezoid floor plan (47 m x 55 / 26 m) and comprises two distinct volumes that are structurally connected at basement level and by footbridges on the upper storeys. A third trapezoid unit featuring a glazed curtain wall façade cantilevers 8 m off the main façade of the front volume. This façade is a structural diaphragm wall, constituted by nine rows of vertical precast concrete members separated by horizontal cast-in-place, self-compacting concrete chords. The location of the courthouse in a seismic area and the short number of horizontal supports for the façade make this wall potentially vulnerable. The particularly high risk during construction called for careful planning based on a detailed analysis of the interaction between the structure and the ancillary resources used to build it.

Like other competitive bridge erection techniques, incremental launching is a highly vulnerable process that entails considerable risks to persons. In steel and composite bridges, in particular, patch loading and other mechanisms that induce instability must be avoided. Considerable uncertainties are associated with both resistances and support reactions during launch operations due to the broad range of factors involved. Nonlinear finite element (FE) analysis is very useful for the explicit verification of both local and overall system stability during steel structure launching. Monitoring, in turn, may be a very powerful tool for reducing the risks associated with such operations. Further research is needed both to establish safety levels for temporary structures and on-site activities and to develop a suitable design format for nonlinear FE analysis. However, in everyday practice, engineers and builders must deal with much more basic problems, often related to the interaction between the structure unde...

The design of concrete structures is usually made by means of a performance approach based on strength tests carried out following testing conditions agreed by convention. A similar approach should also be followed in the case of durability design regarding reinforcement corrosion. This type of consideration enables the establishment of verification of durability in categories. Three categories have been identified: (I) it would be the prescriptive method already given in present codes based on “deemed-to-satisfy” rules, (II) this is based in the testing through “durability indicators” that where still not quantification of the time to reach a limit state is explicit but the minimum life time is assured through performance based tests, (III) it is the category in which the calculation of aggressive ingress through models having explicit the time is made including probabilistic treatments. In the paper in addition to the comment on the most common methods of calculation of the chloride ingress and their limitations it is illustrated how for level II and III the measurement of the electrical resistivity results a very suitable proposal due to this parameter can be measured in a non-destructive test and serves to quality control. It is not only a performance test (level II) but it can be included in models of both the initiation and propagation periods. For the time to corrosion onset, the electrical resistivity represents the porosity and its connectivity and therefore can be used to model transport processes. It also results very suitable for measuring concrete aging and then accounting for the reduction of the diffusion coefficient with time. Concerning the propagation period, the electrical resistivity is an indication of the moisture content of concrete and therefore, it has a certain relationship with the corrosion cement. A model is proposed in which the resistivity is introduced in the square root of time law. Finally the paper comments on the tests methods used for the measurement of the diffusion coefficient and of resistivity

The present contribution addresses the reliability level implicitly required by the current design codes for the principle load-bearing elements (beams and columns) in ordinary RC structures exposed to accidental situations associated with gas explosions. A representative set of members is defined varying the parameters with the greatest effect on design within reasonable ranges. Following the establishment of the significant hazard scenarios, limit state functions for the relevant member failure modes are defined taking account of dynamic effects induced by high loading rates. Subsequent to a strict member design (Ed = Rd) according to a consistent set of codes, structural failure probabilities are derived and analyzed in the light of target ceilings demanded by current codes. The findings may be used to deduce structure-related risks and acceptance criteria for their assessment. Such criteria would facilitate rational decisions on both, the need and the appropriate choice of risk-reduction measures to counteract the effects of gas explosions in buildings.

The present paper addresses the challenging issue of establishing acceptable risks or target reliability levels, taking account of temporary use conditions of structures. Acceptance criteria for building structure related-risks to persons obtained in prior studies are adapted to the special circumstances of non-permanent exposure of the building users. Thereby, the general principle followed is to maintain the same risk levels per time unit as for permanently occupied buildings. The adaption is based on the statistical annual fatality rate, a recently proposed life safety risk metric which allows for consistent comparison of risks across different societal activities and technologies. It is shown that the target reliability indexes taking account of the temporary use of buildings might be significantly higher than the values suggested for permanently used structures.

The shape adopted for the Paloma footbridge, one of a series of pedestrian bridges built to improve the lateral permeability of an urban motorway in Madrid, was the result of the site constraints and the functional requirements defined in the specifications for the design contest organised by the municipal government. The 190 m long, continuous four-span deck is curved in the plan view and designed as a spatial steel truss girder with an open, C-shaped cross section. Special attention was paid to the shaping of structural members and good detailing, as well as to the finishes. The bridge constitutes an example of how demanding boundary conditions may inspire careful and even innovative, structural design.

Public opinion in many communities is contributing to the growing demand for structures that are more than just utilitarian. Bridges, however, are a product of engineering in no need whatsoever of ...

Italian ryegrass (Loliummultiflorum Lam. ssp. italicum Volkart ex Schinz et Keller) thrives well in permanent grassland in mild and moist regions of Switzerland. Ecotypes of Italian ryegrass from Swiss permanent meadows have often been used successfully as the base material of breeding programmes. However, their agronomic performance per se has never been studied in detail. Therefore, field trials were conducted to assess the potential of this semi-natural genetic resource for use in breeding. Twenty ecotype populations were collected in different geographical regions in 2003 and seed was increased. Plot trials with 20 ecotype populations were conducted 2005–2007 at three locations, supplemented by row trials at two additional locations, and including four currently recommended cultivars as controls. Average performance in terms of yield, vigour and resistance to snow mould of ecotypes was superior to the cultivars. Depending on the characteristic, between three and 16 of the 20 ecotypes performed significantly better than the cultivars mean. However, resistance against crown rust of all ecotypes was significantly poorer than that of the cultivars. Correlation and regression analysis showed that more eastern and more northern collecting sites harboured better performing ecotypes. However, the most consistent site related factor favouring performance of the ecotypes in terms of yield, vigour, snow mould and Xanthomonas resistance was a low abundance of species which are typical of Arrhenatheretum type meadows. Data from the plot trials were related to results obtained with spaced plants at a single site, either in a seedling nursery or in the greenhouse. Resistance against crown rust was extremely well predicted by spaced plant observations. Xanthomonas resistance observed after artificial inoculation in the greenhouse was also significantly, but less closely correlated with field observations. An early date of ear emergence as observed on spaced plants was associated with high annual yield in the plot trials. It is concluded that in intensively managed habitats, natural selection has resulted in ecotype populations of Italian ryegrass which are highly promising for use in breeding. Individual plant selection for resistance can be expected to efficiently reduce their high susceptibility to crown rust.

(2008). Alinghi Base for the 32nd America’s Cup, Valencia, Spain. Structural Engineering International: Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 192-195.

Herbage yield trials are necessary to test if candidate varieties are well suited for organic conditions. In order to elucidate a particular suitability for organic conditions, we run such trials in parallel under both organic and conventional conditions. Here, we report on second and third year results of the sowings 2004 and 2005. These trials are part of a targeted breeding programme for organic conditions. Irregular colonisation of pure grass plots with adventitious plants, in particular white clover, was recognized as a major constraint to the quality of the results obtained under organic conditions. The coefficients of variance in dry matter yield almost doubled when compared to conventional trials, and significant differences in annual yield among varieties were rare. However, when herbage yield was corrected for the estimated fraction of adventitious plant colonization at each cut, the number of instances with statistically significant differences for annual yield among varieties increased more than fourfold. Dry matter yields under organic and conventional conditions were significantly and positively correlated. However, analysis of variance showed a significant culture type by variety interaction for annual dry matter yield in 12 out of 24 trials. When diploid and tetraploid varieties of the same Lolium species were tested in one common trial, only tetraploid varieties were identified as being particularly well suited for organic conditions, while in these trials, the great majority of apparently poorly suited varieties were diploid. This suggests that breeding tetraploid Lolium varieties is promising when aiming at a favourable response to organic agriculture.

The present study explores methods and tools for the practical application of explicit risk analysis methods. Structure-related risks to persons are established on the grounds of the probability of structural failure and its consequences in terms of loss of human life. The procedure adopted is applied to a representative set of structures for densely occupied buildings, for which explicit risk- analysis is of particular interest in light of the potentially high consequences to personal integrity. Acceptance criteria for risks to persons associated with such structures are deduced from the findings. These criteria provide a rational basis for decision-making in structural engineering. They may be used in explicit risk analysis or as a basis for the consistent calibration of simplified models and partial factors for structural design and assessment of existing structures.

(2006). Salto del Carnero Railway Bridge, Saragossa, Spain. Structural Engineering International: Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 200-203.

The horseracing world championship was held in Jerez, Spain, in September 2002. For this occasion, the town owned track and field stadium has been extended and refurbished. The paper describes the basic ideas for the conceptual design of the extended structure, bearing in mind the complex boundary conditions.

The assessment of an existing structure to determine its suitability for present and future use entails different sorts of problems than encountered when designing new structures. The differences revolve essentially around the nature of the information available. In existing structures, deteriorated or otherwise, the accuracy of the models used for such assessments can usually be improved by acquiring more data. The Spanish Technical Building Code defines a procedure for the evaluation of existing structures that includes the same verification format as normally applied for designing new structures, but in which the representative values for the variables and the partial factors may be modified on the basis of updated information. Tools intended for such modifications, developed for the safety assessment of existing sound and deteriorated concrete structures, are applied to the structural assessment of the main dome over La Laguna cathedral, Tenerife, Spain.

From June to October 2000, Expo 2000 in Hanover, Germany, explored the theme of man, nature and technology. Spain participated in this last universal exhibition of the millennium with the intention...

Explicit risk analysis, a powerful structural safety decision-making tool, was applied to investigate the collapse of a movable scaffolding system (MSS) during construction of the River Verde Viaduct at Almuñécar, Spain in 2005, in which six workers lost their lives. Systematic qualitative risk analysis was conducted to identify the MSS structural safety hazards that may have theoretically caused the collapse. Based on exhaustive experimental and theoretical studies, these hazards were classified by their relevance to the accident. Logical combinations of the hazards were subsequently established to ascertain possible failure scenarios. This was followed by quantitative risk analysis, in which probabilistic methods were deployed to corroborate the likelihood of occurrence of the scenarios envisaged. Without such methods, no credible conclusions could have been drawn.

Corrosion can affect the bond between reinforcing bars and concrete and hence the transfer of longitudinal stresses. Although a number of experimental studies on bond failure have been conducted in recent years, the findings have diverged rather widely, due primarily to differing test conditions.The present paper reports on an experimental programme consisting of eccentric pull-out tests run on corroded steel bars in specimens subjected to accelerated or natural corrosion [1]. An axisymmetric bi-dimensional FE model with finite deformations initially developed to study bond mechanics with sound steel bars [2], has been enhanced to consider bond effects in corroded steel bars. The model simulation is compared to some of the experimental results for corroded and sound bars and the findings are analysed.

The present contribution describes the development of methods and tools intended for the practical application of explicit risk analysis in structural design. More specifically, it deals with the risk of personal injury caused by structural damage resulting from gas explosions, regarded as a significant threat to structural safety. Risk quantification entails the use of models able to quantify the uncertainties associated with the basic variables involved. A probabilistic model for the predominant action involved in explosions, explosion pressure, was deduced from test results available in the literature. This model was subsequently used to analyse the reliability level of a representative series of reinforced concrete beams against the implicit requirements laid down in building codes. The wide scatter observed is an indication of the lack of consistent calibration of current design rules. The findings may be used in future studies to deduce a consistent level of acceptable personal risk associated with gas explosion-induced structural collapse.

Direct steam generation has distinct cost advantages over alternative methods for producing superheated steam from a solar collector system. We present results from a model predictive controller for a solar steam generator that is configured as a once through to superheat process using direct steam generation. The solar collector system modeled uses a linear Fresnel reflector field with a multi-tube receiver. The model predictive controller uses step response models that are developed offline using a dynamic simulation. The model predictive controller incorporates a feedforward signal based on absorbed solar power. Performance of the controller has been demonstrated at the Kimberlina Solar Power Station near Bakersfield, California. The results show the feasibility of a controller for a solar direct steam generation system that provides stable superheated steam temperature and pressure conditions through weather events.

The Kimberlina Solar Thermal Power Station in Bakersfield, California, is AREVA Solar’s first North American solar thermal energy facility and an important showcase of AREVA’s Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) technology. Construction of a fourth solar steam generator (SSG4) was completed at Kimberlina in August 2010. At the time SSG4 represented AREVA Solar’s most current commercial technology, designed for direct superheat steam generation. SSG4 incorporates technology advancements that significantly enhance the AREVA Solar technology’s controllability, steam temperature and pressure capabilities as well as overall performance. After SSG4 was commissioned, AREVA Solar carried out an extensive performance test program on this advanced technology to formally evaluate and quantify its measured performance and compare that to the model-predicted performance. The performance testing included two specific tests. The first was the Steady State Performance Test (SSPT), which evaluated the technology’s steady-state performance over a two-hour period on multiple days. The second test was the Entire Day Performance Test (EDPT), which evaluated the technology’s performance throughout an entire day, including overnight losses, startup, mid-day performance (including steady-state, quasi steady-state and transients) and shutdown. The third test demonstrated the technology’s response to a simulated direct normal insolation (DNI) transient. AREVA Solar took great care to design and perform this testing in a standardized manner that would stand up to independent, expert observation and was consistent with established ASME performance test codes (PTC), where applicable. AREVA Solar plans to implement this testing methodology in future commercial plants and technology demonstrations. This paper documents in detail the performance testing methodology used to evaluate AREVA Solar’s new technology, including: • Test prerequisites; • Performance (both measured and modeled) calculation equations; • Environmental and optical surface measurement techniques; • Measurement test success criteria; • Uncertainty calculation and implementation. This paper also documents the measured testing results relative to the AREVA Solar internal modeled results including follow-up model validation.Copyright © 2011 by ASME

Introduction Myofibroblastoma of the breast is a rare benign stromal tumour seen predominantly in men. The gross appearance is that of a well-circumscribed nodule, characteristically small, seldom exceeding 3 cm. We present a case of an unusually large myofibroblastoma, which mimicked a malignant breast tumour. Case presentation A 65-year-old man presented with a rapid enlargement of the right breast over 6 weeks. Examination revealed a firm 15 cm hemispherical lump occupying the whole of the right breast with peau d'orange appearance of the overlying skin and distortion of the nipple. The clinical and radiological features suggested the possibility of sarcoma of the breast. However, a guided Tru-Cut biopsy was inconclusive. A mastectomy was performed to remove the tumour, which weighed more than 2 kg. Histopathology and immunocytochemistry revealed a mixed classical and collagenised type of myofibroblastoma. The patient is well with no evidence of recurrence 5 years after the mastectomy. Conclusion This unexpected presentation of an unusually large myofibroblastoma in a male breast is the largest reported to date. Myofibroblastomas can mimic malignant neoplasms and the clinical significance of this entity lies primarily in its recognition as a distinctive benign neoplasm.

The use of probabilistic-based design of concrete durability has been increased during the last ten years. Although the mathematical models and probabilistic characterizations are almost available for several degradation processes, it is still not established what order of probability should be considered as acceptable for design and assessment purposes. In this paper the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis is used for several structural typologies in buildings and some values of acceptable failure probabilities are obtained. The resulted values are very close to those proposed by the Joint Committee of Structural Safety (JCSS) that are also given in the new version of the Eurocode 0 "Basics of Design" for Serviceability Limit States.

Presstessed and reinforced precast concrete structures behaviour in seismic areas depends mostly on the kind ofjoint between elements. The final configuration ofthe structure for resisting actions is granted by the e.xecution ofrigid connections during the building phase. When joints in precast structures have continuity ofthe reinforcement in the connections, the behaviour ofthese structures in seismic areas is quite similar to cast-in-situ ones. Therefore, no limitation should be applied and the same requirements statedfor common structures should be validatedfor precast ones. El comportamiento de las estructuras prefabricadas de hormigón armado y pretensado en zonas sísmicas depende, fundamentalmente, del tipo de unión que vincula los diferentes elementos prefabricados. Éstos se completan durante el proceso de montaje mediante la ejecución de los nudos, dotando a la estructura de su configuración definitiva para resistir las acciones de servicio. Cuando las estructuras prefabricadas presentan una tipología de unión en la que se da continuidad a las armaduras que configuran los nudos rígidos, se puede afirmar que el comportamiento de las mismas en zonas sísmicas es análogo al que corresponde a una estructura de hormigón construida "in situ", sin ningún tipo de limitación y, por tanto, son de aplicación las mismas exigencias normativas que las utilizadas, con carácter general, para el proyecto y construcción de las estructuras de hormigón estructural.

One of the main infrastructures on the new high-speed railway from Madrid to Barcelona is the Zaragoza Delicias station with its outstanding roof. The paper describes the basic ideas for the conceptual design of the roof structure, bearing in mind the complex interactions between geometry, functionality, construction materials, manufacturing, erection, structural overall-concept and detailing. The adopted solution is described and the importance of a consistent conceptual design is emphasised in order to obtaining a reliable, functional and economic structure. Some hints concerning the construction are also given. The example shows that the success of a structural design strongly depends on a good co-operation between the owner, the architect and the structural engineer. It further shows that an architectural design may be improved through structural considerations.

The embedded software world is facing a significant increase in complexity. Walk through an embedded-systems conference or scan the trade magazines and you will see the arrival — with a vengeance — of a new generation of high-performance, highly integrated microcontrollers from almost all the main silicon vendors. These new, low-cost devices are accelerating the competitive pressures to deliver embedded products that have more features while at the same time are more user friendly. Customers want more integration and connectivity throughout their systems. They expect flexible and configurable products. Products that were once standalone applications are now expected to be components of larger systems. There is also a growing need for dynamically downloadable application components. To make the software developer’s job even harder, add the need for application portability and the demand for customizations. Then add the emphasis on “time to profit.” Hardware costs will no longer preclude the delivery of such solutions. The limiting factor will be software.

James Poskett's excellent article about Ernest Rutherford (September pp39–42) marking the centenary of his discovery of the structure of the atom mentioned that, to inject engineering capability into the skills at his disposal at Cambridge, Rutherford had to turn to Russia and Pyotr Kapitsa.

The articles in your special issue marking the centenary of superconductivity were interesting and quite rightly included one that describes the neglected work of the London brothers ("The forgotten brothers" April 2010 pp26–29).

This article describes the design and construction process for widening a reinforced concrete double-rib arch bridge in Spain. The deck needed widening from 6 metres to 9 metres. The conceptual design involved the construction of a new cast-in-place concrete slab, with the existing deck slab acting as formwork for the central part of the new slab and being incorporated into the structural system of the widened bridge. Structural assessment was conducted to determine whether the bridge in its new construction would be serviceable. This was based on a combined application of deterministic and probabilistic assessment methods, using information from the time of the original construction, a visual inspection and a geotechnical survey. In construction, the existing concrete cover was partially removed to leave strips which assisted in bonding of the new slab. A travelling formwork was used to cast the new deck slab cantilevers. The bridge was load-tested after paving operations were complete.