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Children's Step Counts on Weekend, Physical Education, and Non-Physical Education Days There have been well-documented increases in overweight and obese children, sedentary lifestyles, and increased prevalence of a hypokinetic disease over the past 20 years. Thus understanding the physical activity patterns of children is essential for developing effective interventions. Little evidence exists that illustrates the contribution of weekend, physical education, and non-physical education days to overall physical activity patterns of children. The purpose of the study was to examine differences in pedometer-determined physical activity patterns of fourth and fifth grade children during weekend, physical education and non-physical education days. Three hundred and sixty-three children (8-11 years old) from six Southwestern USA elementary schools participated by wearing pedometers (Yamax Digiwalker SW-200) for seven consecutive days. Children recorded their steps at arrival to school and when they woke up and went to bed on weekend days. During weekdays, the fourth and fifth grade children averaged 13,196 ± 3,334 and 11,295 ± 3,168 steps/day for boys and girls, respectively. This is compared to a weekend average of 7,660 ± 4,647steps/day (boys) and 7,317 ± 4,062 steps/day (girls). Children were significantly more active on physical education days, averaging 12,979 steps/day (14,197 ± 4,697 steps/day for boys and 12,058 ± 3,772 steps/day for girls),compared to non-physical education school days, when they accumulated 11,809 steps/day (12,788 ± 3,600 steps/day for boys and 11,047 ± 3,382 steps/day for girls). Based on the findings in this study, children and youth are more active during school days than on weekend days. Furthermore, children are more active on physical education days than non-physical education days. These findings suggest that increased physical activity programming and interventions during weekend days may be needed to increase physical activity. The expansion of school-based physical education across more school days may also serve to increase children's physical activity during the school week.

Background:The purpose of this study was to cross-validate international BMI-referenced steps/d cut points for US girls (12,000 steps/d) and boys (15,000 steps/d) 6 to 12 years of age.Methods:Secondary pedometer-determined physical activity data from US children (N = 1067; 633 girls and 434 boys, 6 to 12 years) were analyzed. Using international BMI classifications, cross-validation of the 12,000 and 15,000 steps/d cut points was examined by the classification precision, sensitivity, and specificity for each age–sex stratum.Results:For girls (boys) 6 to 12 years, the 12,000 (15,000) steps/d cut points correctly classified 42% to 60% (38% to 67%) as meeting (achieved steps/d cut point and healthy weight) and failing (did not achieve steps/d cut point and overweight). Sensitivity ranged from 55% to 85% (64% to 100%); specificity ranged from 23% to 62% (19% to 50%).Conclusion:The utility of pedometer steps/d cut points was minimal in this sample given their inability to differentiate among children who failed to achieve the recommended steps/d and exhibited an unhealthy weight. Caution, therefore, should be used in applying previous steps/d cut points to US children.

JOPERD • Volume 78 No. 9 • November/December 2007 M uch of the focus for physical education teachers relates to the curriculum and each individual lesson that is taught. It is important, however, to advocate for another aspect of the program that teachers are trying to promote: physical activity outside of the physical education classroom. With the limited amount of time for physical education, students cannot reach the recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004b). To make up the difference, physical educators need to help promote, facilitate, and model opportunities for students to be active outside of class. The Healthy People 2010 goals state that individuals should increase their daily physical activity levels and increase their quality of life through physical activity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2000). These goals can be reached by combining the efforts of physical educators with the efforts of other school and community professionals. This article provides suggestions for physical educators to help students, their friends, and even their families to lead a physically active lifestyle and make healthy choices outside of the physical education program.

The purposes of this study included (a) to determine if the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) predicted intentions of individuals with and without disabilities to be physically active, (b) to determine if the TPB predicted behaviors of individuals with and without disabilities to be physically active, and (c) to determine if significant differences were present in physical activity opportunities between inclusive and non-inclusive elementary physical education classes taught by the same teacher. Students (N = 114, ages 10-13) completed questionnaires assessing the TPB constructs and had four days of PA evaluated through pedometer measurements. Analyses revealed that subjective norm and perceived behavioral control predicted students’ intentions to be active, while behavioral intention was the only significant predictor of activity level by step count accrued in PE classes. Finally, the inclusion of students with autism did not significantly affect overall physical activity.

Background:The purpose of this study was to describe the pedometer-determined physical activity levels of American youth.Methods:A secondary analysis of six existing data sets including 1839 (1046 females, 793 males; ages 6 to 18) school-aged, predominantly white subjects from the southwest US. Grade clusters for elementary (grades 1 to 3), upper elementary (grades 4 to 6), middle school (grades 7 to 9), and high school (grades 10 to 12) were created for statistical analysis.Results:Males in grades 1 to 3 and 4 to 6 accumulated significantly more steps/d (13,110 ± 2870 and 13,631 ± 3463, respectively; P < 0.001) than males in grades 7 to 9 and 10 to 12 (11,082 ± 3437 and 10,828 ± 3241). Females in grades 1 to 3 and 4 to 6 accumulated significantly more steps/d (11,120 ± 2553 and 11,125 ± 2923; P < 0.001) than females in grades 7 to 9 and 10 to 12 (10,080 ± 2990 and 9706 ± 3051).Conclusions:Results are consistent with those reported for other objective assessments of youth activity indicating that males are typically more active than females and physical activity is less prevalent among secondary school youth than those in elementary school. Pedometer-determined physical activity levels of youth, including secondary school youth, are higher than reported for adult populations.

This study examined the motivational responses of adolescent girls in the physical education setting to having choices of walking activities. Seventh and 8th grade girls (N = 1,110) in 42 intact physical education classes participated in this study. Classes were randomly assigned to choice (n = 21) and no-choice (n = 21) groups. Participants’ situational and contextual motivation was assessed using the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS) and the Sport Motivation Scale for PE (SMSPE). The SIMS was administered every 3 days during the intervention. The SMSPE was administered as the pre- and posttest. Significant differences indicated that the choice group (a) was more intrinsically motivated, (b) had higher identified regulation, (c) experienced less external control, and (d) was less amotivated. Moderate to large effect sizes were noted. A significant difference in amotivation at the contextual level was noted. Results suggest that adolescent female PE students may be more motivated if given choices. The notion of emerging adult attitudes is presented and explored.

The purpose of this study was to examine individual and situational interests in learning motor skills as associated with gender and skill. Individual and situational interests and motor skill were measured in middle school girls ( n = 109) and boys ( n = 82). A correlation analysis for the entire sample showed a moderate correlation between skill and individual interest ( r = .63) and weak relationships between individual and situational interest ( r r p = .05). However, when individual interest, skill, and gender were compared between students with high or low situational interest in a hierarchical log linear model, it was found that both groups did not differ in number of boys and girls ( p = .98). But the high situational interest group had more students with high skill ( p = .001) and high individual interest ( p = .02). The results suggest that discrepancies in acquired skill accounted for the gender difference and that acquired skill is associated with individual interest and high situational interest in learning motor skills.

This study examined the choices made by adolescent girls in physical education classes when allowed to choose from among a variety of walking activities. Following the TARGET (Epstein, 1988; Treasure & Roberts, 1999) structures, nine walking activities were created to reflect one of four themes: social, exercise/fitness, game-like, or competition. Participants were 570 girls from 21 intact 7th and 8th grade classes from five schools in two school districts. Every 3 days for 9 days, students chose from a list of three activities representing a combination of the four themes. They were significantly more likely to choose (a) a social activity over two exercise and fitness activities; (b) either a game-like or competitive activity over an exercise/fitness activity; and (c) a social activity over a game-like activity or a game-like activity over a competitive activity. Adolescent girls may benefit from activities that are designed to be social, game-like, and/or competitive.

Background. Situational interest is articulated theoretically as a construct associated with five dimensional sources: novelty, challenge, attention demand, exploration intention, and instant enjoyment. Aims. This study aimed to examine the influence of the dimensional sources on situational interest. It was hypothesised that the dimensional sources function differently to contribute to situational interest and that the influence of a source might be mediated by others. Sample. Two samples of 7th, 8th, and 9th grade students were used in the study. There were 281 students (57% male, 43% female) in the first sample and 191 (47% male, 53% female) in the second. Method. Students in Sample A evaluated situational interest and the dimensional sources in tasks of analysing jogging and gymnastic stunts on video. Those in Sample B evaluated them in tasks of learning basketball. Correlation and regression analyses and path analyses were used to test the theoretical model. Results. Instant Enjoyment determined situational interest. Exploration and Novelty had positive influences on situational interest via enhancing Instant Enjoyment. Challenge showed little influence. The path analyses for both samples confirmed the inter-dimensional mediation effects of the sources. Conclusion. The analysed data support the hypotheses. The dimensional sources had unequal influences on situational interest and the mediation effects among themselves at times strengthened or weakened each other's influences. The findings suggest that to increase situational interest, educators should offer students ample exploratory opportunities during student-task interaction that can lead to instant enjoyment for learning.

Situational interest is the appealing effect of unique characteristics students recognize in a learning task during interaction with the task. It occurs when a learning task gives the learner a sense of novelty and challenge, demands high attention and exploration intention, and generates instant enjoyment during the person-task interaction. In this study, a repeated measure research design was used to examine the effects of task design on situational interest and the extent to which the effects were mediated by gender, grade, personal interest, and skill levels. Middle school students (N = 242) evaluated situational interest of four learning tasks with different cognitive and physical demands after having experienced the tasks in their physical education classes. Analyzed data showed that cognitive demand of a learning task played a critical role in generating situational interest. Grade levels, gender, and personal interest mediated the effects of task design on situational interest. But these mediation effects seemed rather limited. Physical skill levels had little influence on the effects of task design on situational interest. The findings seem to suggest that to enhance interestingness of a physical activity task, an option for physical educators may be to increase cognitive demand rather than reduce physical demand.

Active supervision patterns of 18 elementary physical educators were studied in relation to physical activity levels of 3 students per teacher (n = 54) during allotted fitness time. Activity level was measured using the system for observing fitness instruction time (SOFIT) activity categories. Results showed that during fitness instruction teachers spent over 90% of the time in peripheral areas of the gym, actively moved about (7.9 sector changes per minute), and provided augmented feedback to students (3.7 total rpm). Students’ most predominant activity levels were very active, standing, and walking, respectively. Students’ moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) levels averaged 51.9%. Higher percentages of peripheral positioning and demonstrating by teachers correlated with lower amounts of standing still and higher amounts of very active and MVPA behavior. Higher rates of corrective feedback correlated with higher levels of students’ walking and MVPA behavior.

(2004). Fitness Scavenger Hunts for Middle School Students. Strategies: Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 13-15.

Expertise in teaching has received considerable attention, and its knowledge base is growing steadily (Berliner, 1986). Researchers have used a theoretical framework rooted in cognitive psychology, viewing teaching as primarily a complex cognitive skill (e.g., Borko & Livingston, 1989). Research designs typically have included comparisons of teachers categorized as either novice or expert. Classroom studies showed that expert teachers interpreted and recognized classroom events with greater speed and accuracy. Expert teachers actively planned and taught organizational and managerial routines early in the school year (Berliner, 1986, 1988; Brooks & Hawke, 1987; Carter, Cushing, Sabers, Stein, & Berliner, 1988; Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986). Research on physical educators" thought processes indicates similarities between those labeled expert (or more experienced) or novice physical education teachers and classroom teachers (Ashy, Howell, & Lee, 1989; Griffey & Housner, 1991;HousnerG Nelson, 1988; Sherman, 1983; Sherman, Sipp, & Taheri, 1987). Griffey and Housner (1991) were the first to compare not only the thought processes of inexperienced and experienced teachers but also their in-class behavior and that of their students. Findings on thought processes reiterated those from the research literature. Behavioral differences were limited in that experienced teachers spent more time lecturing, and their students spent more time receiving this information and initiating talk. Silence/confusion was more dominant in classes taught by inexperienced teachers.

This study sought to determine the effects of three teacher supervision patterns on student on-task and practice skill behavior. Three experienced physical education instructors and 3 off-task junior high school males served as subjects. An alternating treatments design was used to study the on-task behavior, total practice trials and appropriate practice trials under three supervision patterns: (a) close with feedback, (b) distant with feedback, and (c) distant with no feedback. Under the active supervision patterns (with feedback), teachers issued specific skill feedback to target students at a minimum of 0.5 per minute. Findings indicated that when the treatments were successfully implemented, (a) the percentage of on-task behavior was significantly higher during active supervision for two target students and (b) mixed results were produced for total practice trials and appropriate practice trials across all three treatments.

Supervision patterns of elementary physical educators were analyzed in relation to work involvement patterns of students in each teacher’s class. The supervision patterns analyzed included teacher location, rate of movement, and provision of verbal feedback. Work involvement by students was categorized into on-task, off-task, total motor engagement, and successful motor engagement (ALT-PE). Results showed that teachers spent more time along the periphery of the activity area, and that they were positioned more along the sides. They were active movers, averaging six sector changes per minute, and active in providing verbal feedback (3.2/min). Teacher feedback patterns did not correlate with teacher location/movement patterns. Teachers’ location (periphery) and movement correlated significantly with students’ total motor engagement. Teacher movement also correlated significantly with ALT-PE. Positive behavior feedback correlated with students’ on-task behaviors. Findings indicate that active supervision is important in maintaining students’ involvement with learning tasks in physical education.

The controversial “Common Core” standards in English and mathematics are focused on curricula that will lead to higher levels of learning, and better prepare student for success in society. What is the correlation between the Common Core and physical education? Do enhanced learning practices in English and mathematics identify closely with the “physical” aspect of our profession? This article explores answers to these questions.

Background:The purpose of this study was to conduct a secondary analysis by combining 2 pedometer data sets to describe and analyze pedometer-determined steps/day of children by ethnicity and metropolitan status.Methods:Participants were 582 children (309 girls, 273 boys; 53% Hispanic, 26% Caucasian, 21% African American) age 10 to 11 years (M = 10.37 ± 0.48) attending 1 of 10 schools located in urban, suburban, and rural settings. Participants wore a research grade pedometer for at least 3 week/school days. Mean steps/ day were analyzed by gender, ethnicity, and metropolitan status.Results:Statistical analyses indicated 1) boys (12,853 ± 3831; P < .001) obtained significantly more steps/day than girls (10,409 ± 3136); 2) African American (10,709 ± 3386; P < .05) children accumulated significantly less steps/day than Hispanic (11,845 ± 3901) and Caucasian (11,668 ± 3369) children; and 3) urban (10,856 ± 3706; P < .05) children obtained significantly less steps/day than suburban (12,297 ± 3616) and rural (11,934 ± 3374) children.Conclusions:Findings support self-report data demonstrating reduced physical activity among African American children and youth, especially girls, and among children and youth living in urban areas. Possible reasons for these discrepancies are explored.

Teaching effectiveness with elementary level mainstreamed and nondisabled children was analyzed from the perspective of teacher experience and expertise. There were three analyses: (a) experienced (12.6 yrs) versus less experienced (2.3 yrs) teachers, n=10 each, (b) expert (met 4 of 5 criteria) versus nonexpert (met no criteria) teachers, n=5 each, and (c) expert (met 4 of 5 criteria) versus experienced (no criteria, similar experience) teachers, n=4 each. Classes were matched on activities. Teaching effectiveness was evaluated by analysis of how the teacher allocated class time and how time was spent by the student. Specifically, motor appropriate, on- and off-task data were collected on one mainstreamed and one nondisabled student from each class. Results indicated that teacher behavior differed little as a function of either experience or expertise. Mainstreamed students were significantly less motor appropriate and more off-task than nondisabled students, and neither experience nor expertise significantly altered those differences. The results imply that greater teacher experience or expertise does not necessarily translate into improvements of teacher and student behavior, and simple placement of mainstreamed students with teachers with more experience or expertise may not necessarily be beneficial.

Classroom processes were analyzed to study the effectiveness of main-streaming in physical education. Thirty teachers and 30 mainstreamed handicapped students were videotaped in elementary school P.E. classes. Data on their classroom behavior were coded using standard systematic ALT–PE “effective teaching” observation practices. There were many favorable classroom processes to indicate that mainstreaming was a good context for both handicapped and nonhandicapped students (e.g., comparable ALT–PE percentages and a more positive than negative interaction between teacher and student). Variables most predictive of ALT–PE were interruptions in class and whether a teacher was itinerant or not.

Situational interest has been theoretically articulated as a multidimensional construct that derives from person-activity interaction. This 4-stage study empirically examined the multidimensionality of situational interest in physical education, using an iterative, multisample design. Middle school students (N = 674) were asked to view jogging and gymnastic stunts on video (in Stages 1,2, and 3) and participate in basketball chest-pass and pass-shoot activities (in Stage 4). Immediately following each activity, situational interest of the activity was assessed by having the students respond to an instrument developed to measure the 7 dimensions of situational interest. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were employed to examine the dimensionality of situational interest. The analyses revealed 5 dimensions of situational interest: Novelty, Challenge, Exploration Intention, Instant Enjoyment, and Attention Demand. A 24-item Situational Interest Scale was developed and revised during the 4-stage va...

The analysis of teaching behavior in t he teaching-learning environment i s an important process i n evaluating and improving those behaviors. I n recent years researchers have tu rned the i r attention t o observing the teaching behaviors of coaches i n the athletic sett ing i n order t o better understand t he science of coaching. The purpose of th is art ic le is t o introduce and discuss a systematic observation instrument for collecting data on coaching behaviors. This observational system, called the Arizona State Universi ty (ASU) Observation Instrument, is designed mainly f o r observing the behaviors of coaches, b u t could also be used f o r observing teachers i n physical education settings.

The purpose of the study was to analyze the teaching/coaching behaviors of winning high school head football coaches during practice sessions. A systematic observation instrument with 11 specifically defined behavior categories was utilized to collect data on behaviors of 10 experienced winning coaches in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan area during the 1982 season. Each coach was observed in three phases of the season: preseason, early season, and late season. Segments of the observed practices were classified as warm-up, group, team, or conditioning. Analysis of the data showed that the total rate per minute (RPM) for behaviors was higher in preseason than in either of the other two phases. Four of the 11 defined behavior categories (praise, scold, instruction, positive modeling) had significant differences (.05 level) in RPM between the preseason and the other two phases of the season. No significant differences were found between the early season and the late season phases. The group segment was used most in the preseason, while the team segment was used more of the time in the early season and late season. A lower RPM during the warm-up and conditioning segments indicated less involvement by the head coaches than in the group and team segments of practice.

Elementary physical education student-teachers (N = 7), 4 females and 3 males, were observed along with one class of pupils from each student-teacher's assignment during baseline and intervention conditions. Nine categories of teacher behavior and three categories of pupil behavior were observed with an interobserver reliability of 95%. Behaviors were observed by event, placheck, and duration recording procedures and were converted to rates per minute or percentages. These rates per minute or percentages were then analyzed by behavior profiles and a multiple baseline design. Findings revealed that the competency-based intervention had a significant effect on teacher behavior and a slight effect on pupil behavior.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a competency-based approach to secondary student teaching in physical education. Secondary physical education student teachers (N = 7) were observed along with one class of students from each teacher's assignment during baseline and intervention conditions. Seven categories of teacher behavior and two categories of student behavior were observed with an interobserver reliability of 94%. Behaviors were observed by event and placheck recording procedures and were converted to rates per minute and percentages. These rates per minute and percentages were analyzed by behavior profiles and a multiple baseline design. Teacher behaviors included positive reactions to on-task behavior, negative reactions to off-task behavior, positive instructional feedback both general and specific, corrective instructional feedback both general and specific, and pupil contacts using the pupil's first name. The student behaviors included appropriate/inappropriat...

Background:The need to understand where and how much physical activity (PA) children accumulate has become important in assisting the development, implementation, and evaluation of PA interventions. The purpose of this study was to describe the daily PA patterns of children during the segmented school-week.Methods:829 children participated by wearing pedometers (Yamax-Digiwalker SW-200) for 5 consecutive days. Students recorded their steps at arrival/departure from school, Physical Education (PE), recess, and lunchtime.Results:Boys took significantly more steps/day than girls during most PA opportunities; recess, t(440) = 8.80, P < .01; lunch, t(811) = 14.57, P < .01; outside of school, t(763) = 5.34, P < .01; school, t(811) = 10.61, P < .01; and total day, t(782) = 7.69, P < .01. Boys and girls accumulated a similar number of steps t(711) = 1.69, P = .09 during PE. For boys, lunchtime represented the largest single source of PA (13.4%) at school, followed by PE (12.7%) and recess (9.5%). For girls, PE was the largest (14.3%), followed by lunchtime (11.7%) and recess (8.3%).Conclusion:An understanding of the contributions of the in-school segments can serve as baseline measures for practitioners and researchers to use in school-based PA interventions.

(1978). Learning Environments to Create Lifelong Enjoyment of Physical Activity. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation: Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 44-44.