Search

Good self-control has been linked to adaptive outcomes such as better health, cohesive personal relationships, success in the workplace and at school, and less susceptibility to crime and addictions. In contrast, self-control failure is linked to maladaptive outcomes. Understanding the mechanisms by which self-control predicts behavior may assist in promoting better regulation and outcomes. A popular approach to understanding self-control is the strength or resource depletion model. Self-control is conceptualized as a limited resource that becomes depleted after a period of exertion resulting in self-control failure. The model has typically been tested using a sequential-task experimental paradigm, in which people completing an initial self-control task have reduced self-control capacity and poorer performance on a subsequent task, a state known as ego depletion. Although a meta-analysis of ego-depletion experiments found a medium-sized effect, subsequent meta-analyses have questioned the size and existence of the effect and identified instances of possible bias. The analyses served as a catalyst for the current Registered Replication Report of the ego-depletion effect. Multiple laboratories (k = 23, total N = 2,141) conducted replications of a standardized ego-depletion protocol based on a sequential-task paradigm by Sripada et al. Meta-analysis of the studies revealed that the size of the ego-depletion effect was small with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) that encompassed zero (d = 0.04, 95% CI [−0.07, 0.15]. We discuss implications of the findings for the ego-depletion effect and the resource depletion model of self-control. Contributing authors affiliated with Linköping University are also listed as Contributors in the list of the article's main authors.Contributing authors: Hugo Alberts, Calvin Octavianus Anggono, Cédric Batailler, Angela R. Birt, Ralf Brand, Mark J. Brandt, Gene Brewer, Sabrina Bruyneel, Dustin P. Calvillo, W. Keith Campbell, Peter R. Cannon, Marianna Carlucci, Nicholas P. Carruth, Tracy Cheung, Adrienne Crowell, Denise T. D. De Ridder, Siegfried Dewitte, Malte Elson, Jacqueline R. Evans, Benjamin A. Fay, Bob M. Fennis, Anna Finley, Zoë Francis, Elke Heise, Henrik Hoemann, Michael Inzlicht, Sander L. Koole, Lina Koppel, Floor Kroese, Florian Lange, Kevin Lau, Bridget P. Lynch, Carolien Martijn, Harald Merckelbach, Nicole V. Mills, Alexej Michirev, Akira Miyake, Alexandra E. Mosser, Megan Muise, Dominique Muller, Milena Muzi, Dario Nalis, Ratri Nurwanti, Henry Otgaar, Michael C. Philipp, Pierpaolo Primoceri, Katrin Rentzsch, Lara Ringos, Caroline Schlinkert, Brandon J. Schmeichel, Sarah F. Schoch, Michel Schrama, Astrid Schütz, Angelos Stamos, Gustav Tinghög, Johannes Ullrich, Michelle vanDellen, Supra Wimbarti, Wanja Wolff, Cleoputri Yusainy, Oulmann Zerhouni, Maria Zwienenberg

Both non-specific and specific mechanisms play a part in the defense against infectious disease. The former are concerned with the varying structural and functional characteristics of cells and tissues and the latter with the formation of specific antibodies and the altered reactivity of tissues. Because of limitations of space, emphasis in this review will be on general mechanisms, and prob­ · lems of specific diseases will be considered only as they are related to those of infectious disease as a whole. It is obvious, also, that many important contributions cannot be discussed in detail; only those will be cited which appertain to functional aspects of im­ munology. It would be impossible, otherwise, to survey even slightly the large number of papers published in the year 1938 alone.

In a series of experiments designed to study the pathogenesis of experimental pneumococcus pneumonia in rabbits by the method employed by Lamar and Meltzer,1 Winternitz and Hirschfelder2 and Armstrong and Gaskell,3 it was found that the intrabronchial insufflation of a broth culture of virulent type I pneumococcus leads to infection of the lungs, with a marked rise in body temperature within 24 hours, usually followed by death of the animal in 1 to 3 days. While pneumococci were recovered from the peripheral blood in only a few of the rabbits before death, blood agar plate cultures of the individual lobes of the lungs, the heart's blood and trachea, taken at autopsy, revealed large numbers of pneumococci. The leukocyte counts were not particularly significant, in that marked increases in numbers were observed in some rabbits and decidedly fewer numbers in others of the same series.The pathological study of the lung tissues from these animals presents a fairly uniform picture. There is a marked acute infla...

The reinforcing function of physical restraint was analyzed for three retarded individuals who had a history of restraint and appeared to enjoy it. Using a preference paradigm with one participant and a reversal design with two others, we found that an arbitrary response systematically increased for each participant when followed by brief periods of restraint. No comparable increases occurred in conditions in which responses were not reinforced or were followed by stimuli designed to control for the nonrestraint components of the restraint consequence. Results were discussed in terms of three clinical issues: determining the possible role of restraint in maintaining behavior problems such as self-injury in natural settings, preventing or eliminating the reinforcing function of restraint, and using restraint reinforcement in treating behavior problems when this consequence is the only identifiable reinforcer for an individual.

Research with retarded and nonretarded populations suggest that toys can be an important part of group-care programs. Yet in a review of the literature. Wheman (1976) showed that there was a paucity of empirical data on effective toy utilization with retarded populations. In this study time-sampling measurements were made of the free-play behavior of 11 severely retarded females with 20 different toys and comparison items. Data analysis revealed that (a) the subjects had strong preferences among toys; (b) there was a low, statistically nonsignificant, correlation between toy preference and price; and (c) professional staff were unable to make accurate predictions of toy preference. Subjects were idle 65 percent of the time when only the 10 less popular toys were available, but only 25% of the time when only the 10 more popular toys were available. We concluded that (a) the behavior of retarded individuals is strongly influenced by the particular toys available to them, (b) empirical data are necessary to make maximally effective and economical use of entertainment materials, and (c) the current lack of such data for retarded population makes this an important area for future research.

Conclusions1. Protein-depletion in young adult male rats, as produced by a weight loss of 25% on a protein-poor diet, materially increases susceptibility to total body irradiation. 2. Age or weight in normally nourished adult rats, in the 150 to 280 g weight range, have little effect on susceptibility to radiation.The author wishes to express his appreciation for advice and assistance to the following men: P. R. Cannon, R. W. Wissler, and E. P. Benditt, Department of Pathology, University of Chicago; A. M. Brues, Biology Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Chicago; L. J. Savage, Department of Mathematics, University of Chicago; and H. D. Landahl, Committee on Mathematical Biology, University of Chicago.The animals used in this experiment were irradiated through the collaboration of the Biology Division, Argonne National Laboratory Chicago.

To the Editor:— In a letter to the Editor inThe Journalof Feb. 2, 1957, page 384, Dr. Max Wishnofsky raises some objections to my Clinical Note "A Simple Aid in Calculation of Diets," which appeared in the Nov. 24, 1956, issue ofThe Journal, page 1233. In criticizing my assumption that half of every pound of body weight gained is fat and half is water, he states that the average fat content of human adipose tissue has been found to be not 50%, but 87%. Nevertheless, "in general, the body weight changes about twice as much as the change in fat" (Keys, A., in Clinical Nutrition, edited by N. Jolliffe, F. F. Tisdall, and P. R. Cannon, New York, Paul B. Hoeber, Inc., 1950, page 236). In attempting to reconcile this with the data cited by Dr. Wishnofsky, one might hypothesize that a considerable amount of water is