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Aims To assess whether adding glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activity measurements to measurements of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity appreciably increases the accuracy of diagnosis of subclinical facial eczema (FE) in cattle. Methods As part of a larger study on the impact of FE on productivity, GGT and GDH activities were measured in serum samples collected from 426 cattle from one dairy farm in the Taranaki region in April 2018. Bayesian latent class analysis was then used to estimate herd prevalence of subclinical FE as well as the specificity and sensitivity of the activity in serum of GGT or GDH alone, and of GGT and GDH activities combined, as diagnostic tests for subclinical FE. Results The latent class analysis estimated the true prevalence of subclinical FE in the study population as 47.5 (95% probability interval (PI) = 38.3-55.3)%. There was no evidence of any clinically relevant difference between GGT and GDH activities as predictors of subclinical FE; the difference between the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves for the two measures was 0.005 (95% PI = -0.02 to -0.03). Using the two tests in parallel, with a threshold of 50 IU/L for GGT and 225 IU/L for GDH resulted in specificity and sensitivity of >95%, markedly increasing the accuracy of diagnosis of subclinical FE compared to using GGT or GDH alone at any threshold. Conclusions and clinical relevance In this herd, combining the two tests resulted in a clinically relevant improvement in the accuracy of diagnosis of subclinical FE compared to using either test alone, which if used at the individual level will result in fewer cattle being assigned the wrong FE status. This will also apply at the herd level, with combined testing producing fewer false-positive herd test results than using one enzyme alone. This is particularly important for monitoring the efficacy of FE control measures when the expectation should be that the proportion of cattle with FE is very low.

Latin America with its considerable North-South extent is subject to climate that varies from tropical, subtropical and warm temperate to temperate. Different agricultural products are produced in the area including cereals, oilseeds, beans, fruits and nuts together with animal production including cattle for beef and milk, pigs, poultry and fish. The heterogeneity of agriculture in Latin America is reflected in the diversity of the region's farm structures. While agriculture in the Southern Cone is dominated by large, commercial and export-oriented farms, particularly in Argentina and Brazil, besides increasingly in other countries like Uruguay, much of the rest of the region is characterised by smallholder and family agriculture. The contamination of agricultural products with mycotoxins has impact both human and animal health, as well as the economy due to losses related to rejections of agricultural products and by-products during trade. The economic burden related to the consumption of mycotoxins by animals is especially important, causing productivity losses up to the death of animals. The relevant mycotoxins are fumonisins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in cereals and cereal-based products, aflatoxins in cereals, oily seeds and nuts, aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products as well as ochratoxin A (OTA) in coffee, grapes and raisins. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins has also been observed mainly with aflatoxins and fumonisins in different Latin American countries (Torres et al., 2015). Advances on legislation in different countries including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay have been done to establish maximum limits for mycotoxins including aflatoxins, DON, ZEN, OTA, patulin and ergot alkaloids (ANVISA, 2011/2017; CAA, 2019/2021, Norma Oficial Mexicana, N.-243-S., 2010/2010; Reglamento Sanitario de los Alimentos, 2013). Fil: Chulze, Sofia Noemi. Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Fisicoquímicas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigación en Micología y Micotoxicología. - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto de Investigación en Micología y Micotoxicología; Argentina Fil: Torres, Adriana Mabel. Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Fisicoquímicas y Naturales. Instituto de Investigación en Micología y Micotoxicología. - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto de Investigación en Micología y Micotoxicología; Argentina Fil: Torres, Olga. Laboratorio Diagnóstico Molecular; Guatemala Fil: Mallmann, Carlos Alberto. Universidade Federal de Santa Maria; Brasil

Feeding farm animals with aflatoxin-contaminated feed can cause various severe toxic effects, leading to increased susceptibility to infectious diseases and increased mortality, weight loss, poor performance and reduced reproductive capability. Following ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs, aflatoxins are metabolized and biotransformed differently in animals. Swine metabolism is not effective in detoxifying and excreting aflatoxins, meaning the risk of aflatoxicosis is increased. Thus, it is of great importance to elucidate the metabolism and all metabolic pathways associated with this mycotoxin. The damage induced by AFB1 in cells and tissues consists of inhibition of cell proliferation, carcinogenicity, immunosuppression, mutagenicity, oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, leading to pathological lesions in the liver, spleen, lymph node, kidney, uterus, heart, and lungs of swine. At present, it is a challenging task and of serious concern to completely remove aflatoxins and their metabolites from feedstuff; thus, the aim of this study was a literature review on the deleterious effects of aflatoxins on swine metabolism, as well as alternatives that contribute to the detoxification or amelioration of aflatoxin-induced effects in farm animal feed.

The purpose of the survey is to study the possibility of applying Biobardin feed additive (3–5%). It can provide antibacterial properties for broiler-chicken feeds in order to reduce the negative effects of mycotoxins produced by the mold fungi Fusarium graminearum, F. sporotrichiella, F. poae, and F. moniliforme present in the feed mixtures on the production performance of poultry and to prevent mycotoxicoses in them. A positive effect of 5% feed additive supplemented to the diet is proven. The poultry suffering from the chronic forms of mycotoxicoses could absorb the nutrients more effectively than the poultry that consumed similar feeds free from the analyzed additives. The opportunity to reduce the chronic mycotoxicosis’s after-effects in poultry by 25–50% is found. The Biobardin additive testing for its different proportions contained in the moderately contaminated feed mixture could contribute to normalizing the metabolic processes in the digestive system due to the probiotic bacteria in the feed additive and the reduced alimentary toxic load on the bird body. As much as 5% of Biobardin additive contained in feed can provide the opportunity to compensate for a 10–30% reduction in key performance indicators for broiler chickens, which is more effective than the same fishmeal proportion.

The article presents results of efficacy studies for a complex plant-based preparation for poultry mycotoxicosis. Feed additive fibralin contains polysaccharides (dried sugar beet pulp) and phospholipids (rapeseed lecithin) in the proportion 4:1. Eighteen-day-old “Ross-308” broiler chickens with average weight of (665.10 ± 4.28) g were tested, since such mycotoxins as T-2 toxin, zearalenone and aflatoxin B1 were detected in their feeds. Maximum admissible level of each toxin was not exceeded, however, their cumulative effect on poultry resulted in mycotoxicosis. Use of fibralin in the feed (3 kg per one ton) for 10 days reduced clinical signs of intoxication, increased flock survival by 13.5% and stimulated body weight gain by 15.8%. Pharmacological effect of fibralin was demonstrated by improvement of blood morphobiochemical parameters in poultry, i.e. reduction of leukocytes by 19.3% and cholesterol by 13.6%; and an increase in the number of erythrocytes by 19.4%, hemoglobin by 8.1% and calcium by 9.5%. Antitoxin therapy had a positive effect on liver structure and functions and that fact was confirmed by a decrease in aminotransferase level in serum and normal levels of total protein. The data obtained may justify the use of this natural bio-preparation as a product with antitoxic and hepatoprotective properties and the use of fibralin for mycotoxicosis treatment of poultry.

Aflatoxins (AFB1) are mycotoxins known to be associated with human and animal diseases. The lung is a at risk from AFB1exposure either via inhalation or circulation. Green tea consumption is increasing over time due to widespread popularity as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective agents. Therefore, we attempted to study the lung toxicity caused by AFB1 and the possible ameliorating effect of green tea extract. Forty adult male albino rats were divided into five groups; Group I: Untreated control group, Group II (vehicle): Each rat received 1 ml of olive oil, Group III (GTE): Each rat received Camellia sinensis, green tea extract (30 mg/kg/day), Group IV(AFB1): Each rat received (50 μg/kg/day of AFB1). Group V (AFB1+ GTE): Each rat received the same previously mentioned doses of AFB1 in addition to GTE concomitantly. All treatments were orally gavaged for 8 weeks then rats were sacrificed. Serum levels of pro-inflammatory (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines were measured, lung tissues’ oxidative stress indices were also measured in addition to the histopathological study which was performed by using hematoxylin & eosin and Masson trichrome stains. Morphometric and statistical analyses were also performed. Oral gavage of AFB1 resulted in significant histopathological changes in the lung tissues, in the form of variable degrees of congestion, hemorrhage, interstitial inflammation with infiltration by chronic inflammatory cells, interstitial fibrosis, bronchitis, vasculitis and fibrous thickening of arterial walls. Inflammation was evident by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and a declined level of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Also, oxidative stress was evident by increased levels of Malondialdehyde (MDA), Myeloperoxidase (MPO), and decreased levels of total glutathione (tGSH) and Catalase (CAT). The histopathological changes, inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative stress markers were significantly decreased during concomitant administration of green tea extract in (AFB1+ GTE) group. Aflatoxin B1 has deleterious effects on the lung tissue that could be minimized by concomitant administration of Green tea extract owing to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and protective properties.

Toxicobiological effect of mycotoxins association of the Penicillium and Fusarium fungus (T-2 toxin at a concentration of 0.1 mg/kg, fumonisin B1 ‒ 0.5 mg/kg, vomitoxin (DON) ‒ 0.1 mg/kg, penicillic acid ‒ 1 mg/kg) was accompanied by the development of a complex pathological process in weaned piglets. In this regard, the detoxification and sorption capacity of the complex feed additive "Harufix+" based on mannanoligosaccharides was studied. The additive effect on the resorptive activity of mineral and vitamin nutrients of feed under the normal feeding conditions and in case of contamination with mycotoxins has been studied. The use of enterosorbent offset the toxic effects of micromycete metabolites, which contributed to the growth of piglets. Thus, weight growth rate increase of the piglets in group 1 (i.e., those whose diet included the additive, unlike the diet of the animals in control group) constituted 16 %, while their average weight growth rate was high and constituted 1.96 kg per day. In addition, during the study of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, ferum, zinc, copper and manganese in the piglets blood was not found excretion of these elements with a sorbent, moreover, noted the normalization their blood level. The study content of vitamins A and E, the same as with mineral nutrients, has not been established decrease during treatment with study the pharmaceutical. The obtained results testify the active absorption in the gastrointestinal tract of the vitamin components within the fodder combined with fodder additive “Harufix+” and high biological accessibility of its transport forms. The efficiency of the additive can be explained by its composition, namely the complex of mineral and organic components that are formed by modification of the organic cations of the mineral surface. Key words: mycotoxins, mycotoxicosis, macro- and microelements, sorbent, vitamin metabolism, piglets.

Ruminants have the capacity to utilize some mycotoxin contaminated feedstuffs without impact on production or carry-over tissue residues. Despite large investments in crop development to diminish mold invasion and mycotoxin production, grain facilities to dry and store cereals, and use of alternative processing, mycotoxins frequently occur at elevated concentrations that affect ruminants. Fungal invasion by molds can occur in stored forages, silages, and wet bales and toxicity of these mold related mycotoxins is often poorly characterized. Ruminants occupy wide agricultural niches that expose animals to diverse toxins in different conditions, challenging veterinarians making diagnostic interpretations on contaminated forages and grains. This article discusses mycotoxins affecting ruminants in North America.

Bovine fescue toxicosis (FT) is caused by grazing ergot alkaloid-producing endophyte (Epichloë coenophiala)-infected tall fescue. Endophyte’s effects on the animal’s microbiota and metabolism were investigated recently, but its effects in planta or on the plant–animal interactions have not been considered. We examined multi-compartment microbiota–metabolome perturbations using multi-‘omics (16S and ITS2 sequencing, plus untargeted metabolomics) in Angus steers grazing non-toxic (Max-Q) or toxic (E+) tall fescue for 28 days and in E+ plants. E+ altered the plant/animal microbiota, decreasing most ruminal fungi, with mixed effects on rumen bacteria and fecal microbiota. Metabolic perturbations occurred in all matrices, with some plant-animal overlap (e.g., Vitamin B6 metabolism). Integrative interactomics revealed unique E+ network constituents. Only E+ had ruminal solids OTUs within the network and fecal fungal OTUs in E+ had unique taxa (e.g., Anaeromyces). Three E+-unique urinary metabolites that could be potential biomarkers of FT and targeted therapeutically were identified.

Aflatoxins are mycotoxins capable of contaminating food, and can cause toxic effects, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and immune system depression. The presence of fungi which produce this metabolite in ingredients that compose the animal feed increased the risk of the emergence of aflatoxicosis. The objective of this study was to report an aflatoxicosis outbreak in rheas (Rhea americana) from a farm in Teresina, PI, Brazil, fed with commercial feed. After the deaths of four animals, epidemiological data were collected and complementary examinations were performed, including necropsy, histopathology, parasitology, blood culture, in addition to the analysis of the presence of toxins in the birds' feed. The diagnosis was based on the acute clinical signs, necropsy findings, which included carcass jaundice, an oedematous, yellowish, friable liver of increased size, and histopathological findings of moderate to severe congestion in all organs. The parasitological and microbiological tests performed were negative, not indicating systemic infectious causes. The analysis of the presence of mycotoxins revealed the existence of Aflatoxins B1, B2 and G1 in the commercial feed supplied, constituting a total of 66.89 μg/kg. This amount of aflatoxin exceeds the maximum level allowed by the Brazilian legislation. To our knowledge this is the first report of aflatoxicosis in rheas, and emphasizes the importance of the diagnosis, control, and prevention of mycotoxins in the quality of food provided to animals kept ex situ.

It is well known that T-2 toxin has cytotoxic radiomimetic like effects on the immune system. Because of scant research data demonstrating the chronic effects of low doses of the T-2 toxin on humoral and cellular responses in rats, the present experiment was undertaken. The animals were divided into four groups, namely, group I (0.5 ppm), group II (0.75 ppm) and group III (1.0 ppm) and group IV (control) were given toxin-free diet for 12 weeks and eight animals each were sacrificed at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12-week of the experimental period. The humoral immune response was evaluated based on hemagglutination test (HA), and levels of serum immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, IgM) while the cell-mediated immune response was evaluated by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response to ovalbumin, lymphocyte stimulation index, analyses of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes and mRNA expression levels of selected cytokines like IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 by quantitative Real-time PCR in experimental groups. T-2 treatment caused suppression in both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses as evidenced by a decrease in all these parameters in toxin fed animals compared to the control in the dose and duration-dependent manner. This dose-dependent effect on the immune system has been further reflected largely by the depletion of lymphocytes from lymphoid organs as observed histopathologically in the spleen, thymus, and Peyer’s patches in the present study.

Silage represents a major part of the feed ration for livestock, being a potential cause of mycotoxicosis as it can be contaminated with toxigenic fungi capable of producing mycotoxins in suitable environmental conditions. In the present work, the presence of natural mycotoxins in samples collected of silage from the main producing areas in Tunisia (Ariana, Bizerte, Beja and Jendouba) was assessed based on different plant material (oat, barley, triticale, artichoke, sulla or raygrass). Mycotoxins were evaluated during three periods in green forage (P1) and subsequently in ensiled products after 60 days (P2) and 100 days (P3) of fermentation. Samples were extracted by a QuEChERS procedure and analyzed by mass spectrometry for the determination of 23 mycotoxins. The results showed the presence of Fusarium mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON), HT-2 toxin, zearalenone (ZEA), enniatins (ENA1, ENB, ENB1) and beauvericine (BEA); as well as one Alternaria mycotoxin tentoxin (TENT). The highest values detected were for DON in the three periods. DON maximum value were 381, 2053 and 916 µg/kg for P1, P2 and P3, respectively. This study demonstrated the presence of fungi and DON, ZEA and ENs contamination in Tunisian silage without a recognized risk on the ruminants or further in humans. However, a continuous enhancement of the silage quality, and management and control of mycotoxins, should be implemented to ensure safe ensilable plant material.

Mycotoxicosis refers to the deleterious pathological effects of different types of toxins produced by some worldwide distributing fungi. Mycotoxins, as secondary metabolites are affecting different organs and systems both in animals and human beings. Zearalenone (ZEA), the well-known estrogenic mycotoxins, is an immunotoxic agent. This macrocyclic beta-resorcyclic acid lactone is mycotoxin procreated as a secondary metabolic byproduct by several types of Fusarium, encompassing Fusarium roseum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium graminearum, and different other types. Attributing to its potent estrogenic activity, ZEA has been incriminated as one of the major causes of female reproductive disorders. Thus, the purpose of the present review article is to appraise the pathophysiological consequences and subsequent explore the progress in the research field of zearalenone immunotoxicities.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by molds, mainly from the genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, Penicillium. They can contaminate food and have a harmful effect on human health. Most mycotoxins are thermostable, that is, they can persist during processing and cooking. The presence of mycotoxins in food can cause harmful effects, ranging from acute intoxication and ending with pathologies of chronic exposure (such as carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic) in humans and animals. T-2 toxin is the strongest immunosuppressant, which in turn predisposes to the development of infectious diseases and leads to a decrease in productivity, which entails significant economic losses. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies zearalenone as a class 2A carcinogen. Therefore, the inclusion of binding agents, or enterosorbents, in the diet is given considerable attention as a strategy to reduce the bioavailability of mycotoxins and the effects of contaminated feed and food. A study of the adsorption capacity of bentonites of the Biklyansk and Tarn-Var deposits, the zeolite of the Main deposit, and in vitro halloysite nanotubes with respect to T-2 toxin and zearalenone showed that it is halloysite that has the best sorption rates (85.8 and 86.0%) and, in the future, may be used to combat mycotoxicosis of animals, birds, and, in the food chain, humans. With an increase in the pH of the medium from 2 to 8, the desorption of mycotoxins with the lowest rates for halloysite at 0.7 ± 0.04% for zearalenone and 3.5 ± 0.1% for T-2 toxin was observed in all studied adsorbents. The data obtained make halloysite nanotubes very interesting for further studies of other mycotoxins and their combinations, as well as its comprehensive study as a means of reducing the toxic load on the body of farm animals and birds.

Introduction. The article deals with the results of the mycotoxicological analysis of feed samples of pond fish. There were found the T2-toxin and aflatoxins.The combined presence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 and T2-toxin was found in all samples of fish feed. Was also studied the impact of combination of several mycotoxins on organoleptic and physico-chemical characteristics of fish carcasses. Fish, affected by mycotoxins, can be classified to the category of doubtful freshness. Materials and methods of research. The studies were conducted between May and October 2019. The investigated materials were a large number of grain and grain mixtures, for feeding fish in six ponds in Nikolaevska settlement community of Sumy region. Preparation of grain samples were made according resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, June 14, 2002, No. 833 «The order of the selection of samples animal, plant and biotechnological origin». The studies of the toxicity and persistent T2-toxin and full amount of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 are conducted on the basis of the Sumy Regional Laboratory of Veterinary Medicine. Feed toxicity was investigated by bioassay on the Tetrahymena piriformis infusorium used the DSTU 3570-97. The RIDASCREEN test systems were used to investigate the aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in grains and grain mixtures. Ichthyopathological studies were conducted in the department of Veterinary and Sanitary Examination, Microbiology, Zooghygiene, Safety and the Guality of Livestock Products of the Sumy National Agrarian University by the accepted methods. Results of research and discussion. In the territory of the Nikolaevska settlement community of Sumy region there are six ponds, in which hold fish, mainly crucian and carp. The fish are fed once a week. Feed mainly consists of grain waste (barley, wheat), which is supplied by local farmers. Food is stored in unsuitable premises. In the feed we noted the presence of remains of substandard grain, which was thrown out during separation. Grain samples are not sampled and laboratory tests are not carried out. The feed is shipped by transport to ponds, dumped from the shore into a pond, immersed in to the water, where consumed by the fish. Totaly 19 samples of feed were examined during this period. Organoleptic evaluation of grain and grain mixtures revealed that the color of the grain was natural, the smell of all the samples had a certain tinge of moldy-musty, some samples had signs of fermentation and mold. Aqueous solutions of the grain extracts and mixtures of the test samples caused a stopping of movement and death of all Tetrahymena piriformis infusions up to 60 minutes in 7 samples, that indicates the toxicity of these feeds. Low toxicity was detected in 11 samples of experimental feed. The absence of toxicity was evidenced by the activity of Tetrahymena piriformis infusoriums, which persisted for 1 hour after the action of aqueous extracts of the samples. The results of the determination of the toxicity of grain feed using infusorium Tetrahymena piriformis. To analyze the content of major mycotoxins was used competitive enzyme immunoassay. The RIDASCREEN FAST Aflatoxin test system and the RIDASCREEN FAST T-2 Toxin test system have a high sensitivity of 0.0017 mg / kg and 0.05 mg / kg, respectively, which made it possible to determine the content of T-2 toxin, the amounts of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in their lowest concentration. The results of analysis of feed samples using the amount of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 That in all samples of grain and grain mixtures was established the presence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. In 7 samples its content exceeds the maximum permissible concentrations. In 10 samples, the combined presence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 and T2-toxin was found, in 5 samples - exceeding the maximum levels. It is known that the combination of several mycotoxins can lead to their synergistic interaction, which will have a more pronounced toxic effect. Unfortunately, it was not possible to determine the maximum content of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 and T2-toxin, so further test kits with different reading ranges should be used, since highly sensitive mycotoxin detection kits make it impossible to determine up to 1 mg / kg. In the following research, we studied the chemical properties of fish meat: reaction to peroxidase (benzidine sample), amount of amino-ammonia nitrogen, reaction with copper sulfate, reaction with Eber reagent, determination of hydrogen sulfide, pH and reaction with Nesler reagent. When muscle is damaged by mycotoxin, the products protein breakdown appears, which promotes rapid breakdown of tissue elements and leads to rapid deterioration of fish. Analyzing changes in veterinary-sanitary and physico-chemical parameters of fish affected by mycotoxicosis, we can classify the affected fish in the category of doubtful freshness. Conclusions and prospects for further research. During the investigate of grain and grain mix for feeding pond fish it was found that 19 samples were highly toxic and 36.8% were law toxoc. 2. Using the competitive enzyme immunoassay the combined presence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 and T2-toxin was found in all samples In 7 samples its content exceeds the maximum permissible concentrations. T2-toxin was found was found in 16 samples, and in 10 samples its content exceeds the maximum permissible concentrations. Fish affected by mycotoxins for organoleptic and physico-chemical characteristics can be classified to the category of doubtful freshness.

Mycotoxicosis caused by Fusarium fungi holds a huge risk considering economic and food safety issues worldwide. By applying milling technologies, we attempted to reduce the concentrates of DON toxin, as it is the most often found toxin in wheat. The processes of sieving, aspiration and combination had been used on wheat with high DON toxin concentration. As a next step, grains were sorted using a horizontal cylinder separator, assorted by an optical and a gravity separator, and finally, the products were scoured and ground. The contamination level of the wheat and flour samples were defined by the HPLC-MS method. Regarding the results, it can be stated that toxin concentration was most effectively reduced by optical separation and scouring, and by applying these milling techniques, food safety can be increased significantly.

Mycotoxins are hazardous compounds which, produced by certain fungi, contaminate agricultural commodities and cause a condition called mycotoxicosis in humans and livestock. In cellular level the t...

1. Aflatoxins (AFs) are metabolites which especially have toxic effects on proteins, and are detoxified by the aflatoxin-B

The aim of the experiment was to investigate the efficacy of a smectite-based clay binder (Toxo-MX) in reducing the toxicological effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in commercial broiler chickens. A total of 450 one-day old male broiler chickens were randomly allocated into three treatment groups with ten replicates of 15 birds each in a 42-day feeding experiment. The dietary treatments included a negative control (NC, a basal diet with no AFB1 and binder), a positive control (PC, a basal diet contaminated with 500 ppb of AFB1) and a smectite-based mycotoxin binder(Toxo-MX, PC with smectite clay binder). AFB1 challenge resulted in 14 to 24% depression in growth performance, elevated levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), organ enlargement and immuno-suppression.As compared to PC, feeding of Toxo-MX improved the final weight (15%; p < 0.0001), average daily gain (ADG) (15%; p < 0.001) and feed efficiency of broilers (13%; p < 0.0003) but did not have any effects on liver enzyme activities. Supplementation of smectite claysignificantly increased serum globulin levels and reduced the weight of the liver (p < 0.05) as compared to AFB1-fed broiler chickens. The severity of lesions (inflammatory and degenerative changes) observed in the liver, kidney, heart, pancreas, and lymphoid organs in PC birds was reduced by feeding smectite clay. The immuno-suppression caused by AFB1 was moderately ameliorated in Toxo-MX groupby stimulating the production of antibodies against IBD at day 42 (p < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary supplementation of a smectite-based mycotoxin binder to the diet containing AFB1 improved growth performance, reduced toxicological effects in liver and improved humoral immune response in broilers, suggesting its protective effect against aflatoxicosis.

A suinocultura apresenta grande importância econômica no Brasil, uma vez que é o quarto maior produtor de carne suína no mundo. O clima subtropical do país favorece o desenvolvimento de fungos e suas micotoxinas nos cereais que servem de alimento e matéria-prima para a ração de suínos. Entre as principais micotoxinas que afetam suínos estão as aflatoxinas, ocratoxinas e fusariotoxinas, produzidas por fungos dos gêneros Aspergillus, Penicillium e Fusarium. Com o objetivo de descrever os agentes etiológicos das micotoxicoses em suínos, destacando características morfológicas, condições favoráveis de crescimento e formas de prevenção e controle da contaminação dos grãos, foi realizada uma busca integrativa em bases bibliográficas como Scielo, Pubmed e Portal CAPES. A identificação e conhecimento aprofundado destes fungos patogênicos leva ao melhor desenvolvimento de pesquisas voltadas à prevenção e controle, redução de perdas econômicas e manutenção da saúde animal. Palavras-chave: Animais de criação. Doenças dos Animais. Intoxicação Alimentar Fúngica. Micologia.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi. Food/feed contamination by mycotoxins is a great threat to food safety. The contamination can occur along the food chain and can cause many diseases in humans and animals, and it also can cause economic losses. Many detoxification methods, including physical, chemical, and biological techniques, have been established to eliminate mycotoxins in food/feed. The biological method, with mycotoxin detoxification by microorganisms, is reliable, efficient, less costly, and easy to use compared with physical and chemical ones. However, it is important to discover the metabolite’s toxicity resulting from mycotoxin biodegradation. These compounds can be less or more toxic than the parent. On the other hand, mechanisms involved in a mycotoxin’s biological control remain still unclear. Mostly, there is little information about the method used by microorganisms to control mycotoxins. Therefore, this article presents an overview of the most toxic mycotoxins and the different microorganisms that have a mycotoxin detoxification ability. At the same time, different screening methods for degradation compound elucidation are given. In addition, the review summarizes mechanisms of mycotoxin biodegradation and gives some applications.

As micotoxinas, metabólitos secundários tóxicos produzidos por espécies de fungos filamentosos, podem contaminar uma ampla gama de alimentos, dentre eles, a ração canina. A ingestão de alimentos contaminados por estas, causa as micotoxicoses, doenças que possuem uma variedade de sinais clínicos dependentes da quantidade de toxina ingerida, tempo de exposição, bem como características ligadas a cada tipo de micotoxina. Este trabalho revisa os principais aspectos relevantes relacionados às micotoxinas quanto a sua origem e conceito, fatores que favorecem sua produção, alimentos mais acometidos, além dos principais sinais clínicos observados, tratamento e prevenção na espécie canina. Palavras-chave: Canis familiaris, intoxicação alimentar por fungos, medicina veterinária, ração animal.

The global recognition for the potential of nanoproducts and processes in human biomedicine has given impetus for the development of novel strategies for rapid, reliable, and proficient diagnosis, prevention, and control of animal diseases. Nanomaterials exhibit significant antifungal and antimycotoxin activities against mycosis and mycotoxicosis disorders in animals, as evidenced through reports published over the recent decade and more. These nanoantifungals can be potentially utilized for the development of a variety of products of pharmaceutical and biomedical significance including the nano-scale vaccines, adjuvants, anticancer and gene therapy systems, farm disinfectants, animal husbandry, and nutritional products. This review will provide details on the therapeutic and preventative aspects of nanoantifungals against diverse fungal and mycotoxin-related diseases in animals. The predominant mechanisms of action of these nanoantifungals and their potential as antifungal and cytotoxicity-causing agents will also be illustrated. Also, the other theragnostic applications of nanoantifungals in veterinary medicine will be identified.

Mycotoxins are secondary by-products of mold metabolism and are accountable for human and animal mycotoxicosis. The most serious trichothecenic mycotoxin is the fungal T-2 mycotoxin. T-2 mycotoxin impaired nutrient absorption, metabolism, and then, eliciting severe oxidoreductive stress. Diet plays a key role beyond the supply of nutrients in order to promote animal and human health. Organic acids have been commonly used to exert antioxidative stress capacity in the liver and gut ecosystem. This study is planned to explore, the competence of using (X-MoldCid®) during chronic T-2 mycotoxicosis course in rat. Rats were allocated into 4 main groups, (CN-Gr), negative control and was allowed for the free access to the normal rats chow and the tap water for 90 days. (OAC-Gr), which was assigned as the organic acids positive control and was allowed for the free access to normal rat chow and (X-MoldCid®) in the tap water for 90 days .Group 3 or (T2-Gr) and was given the T2 contaminated chow ad libitum and group 4 (T2+OAC-Gr) .Each one of the four groups was subdivided into two subgroups (n=7) that one was sacrificed on day 45 (Subgroup A) meantime the remaining rats (Subgroup B) maintained until finishing of the entire study period (90 days). In T2 intoxicated group, liver histopathological findings revealed, lesions of reversible types (hydropic and fatty degenerations) while intestinal histopathological findings revealed, lesions of hyperactive goblet cells with sever slaughing of epithelia. In T2+OAC-Gr, the ultimate efficacy of organic acids success in limiting the apoptotic activity and preventing hepatic necroinflammatory changes which were in accordance with the improvement of antioxidative status, liver and intestinal function enzymes and other serum biochemical estimated tests. The total results of this study have been clarified the regenerative and antioxidant potentials of (X-MoldCid®) in coping with T2-toxin mediated intestinal lesions and hepatotoxicityin rats.

Zearalenone (ZEN) and its metabolites, alpha-zearalenol (α-ZEL) and beta-zearalenol (β-ZEL), are ubiquitous in plant materials used as feed components in dairy cattle diets. The aim of this study was to confirm the occurrence of ZEN and its selected metabolites in blood samples collected from different sites in the hepatic portal system (posthepatic–external jugular vein EJV, prehepatic–abdominal subcutaneous vein ASV and median caudal vein MCV) of dairy cows diagnosed with mastitis, ovarian cysts and pyometra. The presence of mycotoxins in the blood plasma was determined with the use of combined separation methods involving immunoaffinity columns, a liquid chromatography system and a mass spectrometry system. The parent compound was detected in all samples collected from diseased cows, whereas α-ZEL and β-ZEL were not identified in any samples, or their concentrations were below the limit of detection (LOD). Zearalenone levels were highest in cows with pyometra, where the percentage share of average ZEN concentrations reached 44%. Blood sampling sites were arranged in the following ascending order based on ZEN concentrations: EJV (10.53 pg/mL, 44.07% of the samples collected from this site), ASV (14.20 pg/mL, 49.59% of the samples) and MCV (26.67 pg/mL, 67.35% of the samples). The results of the study indicate that blood samples for toxicological analyses should be collected from the MCV (prehepatic vessel) of clinically healthy cows and/or cows with subclinical ZEN mycotoxicosis. This sampling site increases the probability of correct diagnosis of subclinical ZEN mycotoxicosis.

Summary. Data on the effect of mycotoxins on the organism of broiler chickens, and the indirect effect of offal obtained from poultry, fed with mixed feed infected with mycotoxins, that people eat were analyzed in the article. In particular, it has been proved that in experimental DON-toxicosis and experimental citrinin-toxicosis in broiler chickens, these toxins are able to cumulate in organs and tissues and cause clinical and pathological changes. DON exceeded the maximum allowable level for chickens more than 2 times, citrinin exceeded the MDL by more than 20 times. In the first experimental group, the incidence rate of poultry reached 83.3% by the 7th day of feeding and mortality - 52.2% of the number of cases. During the autopsy of the dead chickens it was found that the liver was blood-filled, with areas of necrosis, the gall bladder was full of bile, the muscular wall of the atria was thinned. At experimental citrinin toxicosis, as well as in the first experimental group, diarrhea with an admixture of blood was observed in chickens. At the autopsy there was inflammation of the small and large intestines, the liver was blood-filled, and the intestines were hyperemic. For deoxynivalenol, the fact of accumulation of this mycotoxin in the tissues of the organs of chickens of the 1st group was reliably established. The data on the accumulation in the organs and tissues of broiler chickens of other mycotoxins in our experiments were unreliable and require additional studies.

Modern diagnostic laboratory methods and application of biochemical parameters of blood will allow to determine the pathological process, determine its cause, degree of development, and prognosis. The introduction of these principles can be useful in the development and correction of health measures. The aim of this work is to identify pathognomonic metabolic signs of mycotoxicosis in cattle. In the work, highly productive cows, with clinical signs of intoxication syndrome were examined, and laboratory studies of feed confirmed the availability of metabolites of fungi.Metabolic parameters of the examined group of cows were studied in a comparative aspect with clinically healthy animals in this agricultural enterprise that were examined a year earlier.Conducted investigations have established that the use of feed, contaminated by toxic fungal metabolites leads to the development of symptoms in animals chronic toxemia.Clinical signs are the development of diarrhea and dehydration, and there is a decrease in milk production.The pathological changes that occur in toxemia lead to metabolic disturbances, which can be identified by laboratory diagnostic methods.The pathological process is accompanied by the appearance of severe form of acidosis, including renal tubular acidosis (a decrease in bicarbonate blood capacity, hyperchloremia, hyperphosphatemia, globulinemia, hypokalemia, hypercreatininaemia).Metabolic acidosis predetermines the violation of many types of metabolism, including protein, carbohydrate, mineral and lipid.The pathology of the hepato-biliary system of predominantly toxic etiology is a high percentage in the structure of diseases.Other important metabolic symptoms include the development of the inflammatory process (leukocytosis, an increase in the number of segmented neutrophils and circulating immune complexes), an increase in signs of allergization (eosinophilia, monocytophilia), as well as general intoxication (predominance of abnormal forms of erythrocytes, hypoglycemia).

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of phytobiotic and antifungal feed additives on the growth performance, blood parameters, intestinal morphology, and cecal microbiota activity of broiler chickens under aflatoxicosis challenge. A total of 250 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks (mixed sex) were reared on the littered floor with a completely randomized design by five treatments and five replicates for 35 days. Treatments included positive control (without AFB1), negative control-AFB1 (1 ppm), negative control-phytobiotic (Entex, 0.5 kg/t), negative control-Mycofix Plus (0.5 kg/t), and negative control-phytobiotic + Mycofix Plus. Dietary phytogenic and toxin binder improved body weight gain and feed conversion ratio of broiler chickens (p0.05). Serum concentration of AST increased in broilers which received AFB1 without additives, while the blood concentration of total protein decreased (p0.05). In jejuna morphometric indices, it was observed that the broiler chickens fed phytobiotic additive in combination with toxin binder had a greater villus length and crypt depth (p0.05). Dietary treatments had no significant effect on the cecal microbial population in broiler chickens. In conclusion, the present results indicated that phytobiotic and toxin binder supplement improved growth performance and intestinal morphology of broiler chickens exposed to AFB1 challenge.

Mycotoxins contamination of foods and feeds remain a great challenge to food safety and of public health and economic significance. Mycotoxins occur in various foodstuffs, from raw agricultural commodities to processed foods with varying impacts on food processing. The major group of mycotoxins that contaminate foods and feeds include aflatoxins, fumonisins and patulin. Several studies conducted to reveal the metabolism of mycotoxins in the body are reviewed. Health implications of mycotoxins upon consumption of adequate doses are diverse. They include sub- acute mycotoxicosis, immune suppression, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, morbidity and mortality in animals and humans as well as interaction with nutrient assimilation. Mycotoxicity of foods have tremendous effect on international trade, resulting in huge losses. There are regulations, though not in all countries, aimed at preventing and controlling Mycotoxins which operate only on industrially processed foods and those meant for exports but not locally processed ones. A number of strategies for preventing mycotoxins have been proposed but the awareness for implementation is very low. The use of media to create awareness is a viable option.

Since its first patent (1897), commercial dry feed (CDF) for dogs has diversified its formulation to meet the nutritional needs of different breeds, age, or special conditions and establish a foundation for integration of these pets into urban lifestyles. The risk of aflatoxicosis in dogs has increased because the ingredients used to formulate CDF have also proliferated, making it difficult to ensure the quality required of each to achieve the safety of the entire CDF. This review contains a description of the fungi and aflatoxins detected in CDF and the ingredients commonly used for their formulation. The mechanisms of action and pathogenic effects of aflatoxins are outlined; as well as the clinical findings, and macroscopic and microscopic lesions found in aflatoxicosis in dogs. In addition, alternatives for diagnosis, treatment, and control of aflatoxins (AF) in CDF are analyzed, such as biomarkers of effect, improvement of blood coagulation, rate of elimination of AF, control of secondary infection, protection of gastric mucosa, reduction of oxidative stress, use of chemo-protectors, sequestrants, grain-free CDF, biocontrol, and maximum permitted limits, are also included.

Virulent infectious fungal diseases, in natural and managed landscapes, are increasing. Fungal diseases in humans, animals and plants have caused die-off and extinction events and have become a threat to food security. A caving expedition in Yunnan Province, China, revealed two bat carcasses covered in fungal mycelia. Eleven fungal isolates were obtained from these bat carcasses, and morphological observations and multigene phylogenetic analyses revealed they were Fusarium incarnatum, Mucor hiemalis and Trichoderma harzianum and four new species, Mortierella rhinolophicola, M. multispora, M. yunnanensis and Neocosmospora pallidimors. One of the more alarming findings is that a number of infections related to Neocosmospora, previously associated with human and animal mycotoxicoses, are reported to be increasing, and here we present a new species from this genus, isolated from dead bats. Due to the ecosystem services provided by bats, and the close relationship between bats and humans, future research should focus on the impacts and significance of N. pallidimors to human and animal health, examining its pathogenicity and secondary metabolites. Taxonomic descriptions, color images of the habitat, in situ samples, microstructures and cultures are presented. SEM photographs of microstructures and phylogenetic trees showing the placement of new and known species are also provided.

Background and Aim: Aflatoxins (AFs) are potent toxic metabolites produced from Aspergillus species. Whose existence in poultry ration leads to drastic economic losses, notably in duck, as the most susceptible poultry species. This study aimed to determine tissue residues of AFs, alterations in selected clinical chemistry variables in serum, mainly during the exposure period, and lycopene and silymarin's possible roles as herbal treatments against aflatoxicosis in Pekin duckling. Materials and Methods: The study used one hundred and twenty one-day-old Pekin ducklings and classified them into four groups comprising 30 ducklings in each group. The control group (G1) ducklings were fed a mycotoxin-free ration, and G2 received a naturally contaminated ration with 30 ppb of AFs. G3 and G4 consumed contaminated rations with AFs with 30 ppb for 2 weeks and were treated with lycopene 100 mg/kg or silymarin 600 mg/kg/food, respectively, for 10 days. Serum activities of alanine transaminase and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamyl transferase, ALP, total protein and albumin creatinine and uric acid concentrations, oxidant/antioxidant parameters (malondialdehyde [MDA], total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and catalase [CAT]), and hepatic AFs residue were determined. Lycopene and silymarin were used for the treatment of aflatoxicosis for another 10 days. Results: Hepatic and kidney parameters were elevated in the AFs intoxicated group and reduced in the lycopene- and silymarin-treated groups. They had elevated MDA and AFs residues with decreased antioxidant parameters (TAC, GST, and CAT) in the AFs group. At the same time, treatment with lycopene or silymarin had reversed the action of AFs on MDA, elevated the hepatic residue, and improved antioxidant activity. Conclusion: Lycopene and silymarin, with their potent antioxidant activity, can be used to reverse the harmful effects of AFs on hepatic and kidney tissue.

This review focuses on factors associated with mold production in feedstuffs and major mycotoxins affecting ruminants in North America. Ruminants are often considered less sensitive to mycotoxins owing to rumen microflora metabolism to less toxic compounds. However, ruminants occupy wide agricultural niches that expose animals to diverse toxins under widely different environmental and nutritional conditions. Often the moldy and potentially highly contaminated feeds end up at feedlots. Less than optimal feedstuffs creating suboptimal rumen microbial flora could result in decreased ruminal capacity to detoxify certain mycotoxins and adverse effects. Numerous mycotoxins and clinical effects in ruminants are discussed.

Food decay by spoilage fungi causes considerable economic losses and constitutes a health risk for consumers due to the potential for fungi to produce mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are metabolic intermediates or products, found as a differentiation product in restricted taxonomic groups, not essential to growth and life of the producing organism and biosynthesized from one or more general metabolites by a wider variety of pathways than is available in general metabolism. Mycotoxins occurring in food commodities are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi, which frequently occur in major food crops in the field and continue to contaminate cereals, oilseeds nuts and spices during storage. The deterioration of stored food products due to fungi and mycotoxins in humid and warm areas of the world has added a new dimension to the gravity of the problem. Mycotoxigenic fungi contamination leads to reduced yield and poor quality of products and mycotoxicosis among humans and livestock.

Virulent infectious fungal diseases, in natural and managed landscapes, are increasing. Fungal diseases in humans, animals and plants have caused die-off and extinction events and have become a threat to food security. A caving expedition in Yunnan Province, China, revealed two bat carcasses covered in fungal mycelia. Eleven fungal isolates were obtained from these bat carcasses, and morphological observations and multigene phylogenetic analyses revealed they were Fusarium incarnatum, Mucor hiemalis and Trichoderma harzianum and four new species, Mortierella rhinolophicola, M. multispora, M. yunnanensis and Neocosmospora pallidimors. One of the more alarming findings is that a number of infections related to Neocosmospora, previously associated with human and animal mycotoxicoses, are reported to be increasing, and here we present a new species from this genus, isolated from dead bats. Due to the ecosystem services provided by bats, and the close relationship between bats and humans, future research should focus on the impacts and significance of N. pallidimors to human and animal health, examining its pathogenicity and secondary metabolites. Taxonomic descriptions, color images of the habitat, in situ samples, microstructures and cultures are presented. SEM photographs of microstructures and phylogenetic trees showing the placement of new and known species are also provided.

Mycotoxicosis is poisoning by the ingestion of mycotoxins in food altered or damaged by the growth of toxigenic molds. Mycotoxins can be produced by fungi growing in the living plant, decaying plant material, and in stored plant material. Acquisition by the host is usually by ingestion, though inhalation or direct skin contact can represent health hazards. In almost all examples of mycotoxin production in cereal substrates, the substrate had been autoclaved and contained under aseptic experimental conditions in flasks or similar containment systems. In the authors’ laboratory an experimental protocol has been developed which ensures microorganism-free cereal seeds. For most experimental studies, cereal seeds would normally be autoclaved for variable periods of time and then retained under aseptic conditions. However, this treatment drastically changes the chemical and physical nature of the substrate such that it no longer fully resembles the previous living seeds.