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Many countries have legislation intended to limit or offset the impact of anthropogenic disturbance and development on threatened plants. Translocations are often integral to those mitigation policies. When translocation is used exclusively to mitigate development impacts, it is often termed a ‘mitigation translocation.’ However, both the terminology and processes vary regarding interpretation and application, resulting in inconsistent standards, often leading to poorly planned and implemented projects. These mitigation projects rarely achieve the intended ‘no net loss’ of protected species due to issues with timelines and procedures that result in the mortality of translocated individuals. Instead, such projects are often process driven, focused on meeting legislative requirements which enable the development to proceed, rather than meaningful attempts to minimise the ecological impact of developments and demonstrate conservation outcomes. Here, we propose to reframe mitigation translocations as conservation driven, ensuring best practice implementation and hence, a quantified no net loss for impacted species. These methods include redefining the term mitigation translocation to include conservation objectives and outlining issues associated with the mitigation translocation processes worldwide. We also nominate global standards of practice to which all proposals should adhere, to ensure each project follows a trajectory towards quantified success, with genuine impact mitigation. These proposed standards focus on building efficient translocation plans and improving governance to facilitate a transition from project centred to ecology-driven translocation. Employment of these standards is relevant to development proponents, government regulators, researchers, and translocation practitioners and will increase the likelihood of conservation gains within the mitigation translocation sector.

Conservation translocations, intentional movements of species to protect against extinction, have become widespread in recent decades and are projected to increase further as biodiversity loss continues worldwide. The literature abounds with analyses to inform translocations and assess whether they are successful, but the fundamental question of whether they should be initiated at all is rarely addressed formally. We used decision analysis to assess northern leopard frog reintroduction in northern Idaho, with success defined as a population that persists for at least 50 years. The Idaho Department of Fish and Game was the decision maker (i.e., the agency that will use this assessment to inform their decisions). Stakeholders from government, indigenous groups, academia, land management agencies, and conservation organizations also participated. We built an age-structured population model to predict how management alternatives would affect probability of success. In the model, we explicitly represented epistemic uncertainty around a success criterion (probability of persistence) characterized by aleatory uncertainty. For the leading alternative, the mean probability of persistence was 40%. The distribution of the modelling results was bimodal, with most parameter combinations resulting in either very low (95%) probabilities of success. Along with other considerations, including cost, the Idaho Department of Fish and Game will use this assessment to inform a decision regarding reintroduction of northern leopard frogs. Conservation translocations may benefit greatly from more widespread use of decision analysis to counter the complexity and uncertainty inherent in these decisions. History: This paper has been accepted for the Decision Analysis Special Issue on Further Environmental Sustainability. Funding: This work was supported by the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [Grant F18AS00095], the NSF Idaho EPSCoR Program and the National Science Foundation [Grant OIA-1757324], and the Hunt Family Foundation. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/deca.2023.0472 .

Swift foxes (Vulpes velox) are endemic to the Great Plains of North America, but were extirpated from the northern portion of their range by the mid-1900s. Despite several reintroductions to the Northern Great Plains, there remains a ~350 km range gap between the swift fox population along the Montana and Canada border and that in northeastern Wyoming and northwestern South Dakota. A better understanding of what resources swift foxes use along the Montana and Canada border region will assist managers to facilitate connectivity among populations. From 2016 to 2018, we estimated the home range size and evaluated resource use within the home ranges of 22 swift foxes equipped with Global Positioning System tracking collars in northeastern Montana. Swift fox home ranges in our study were some of the largest ever recorded, averaging (± SE) 42.0 km2 ± 4.7. Our results indicate that both environmental and anthropogenic factors influenced resource use. At the population level, resource use increased by 3.3% for every 5.0% increase in percent grasslands. Relative probability of use decreased by 7.9% and 7.4% for every kilometer away from unpaved roads and gas well sites, respectively, and decreased by 3.0% and 11.3% for every one-unit increase in topographic roughness and every 0.05 increase in normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), respectively. Our study suggests that, to reestablish connectivity among swift fox populations in Montana, managers should aim to maintain large corridors of contiguous grasslands at a landscape scale, a process that likely will require having to work with multiple property owners.

Winter can be a limiting time of year for many temperate species, who must access depressed prey resources to meet energetic demands. The swift fox (Vulpes velox (Say, 1823)) was extirpated from Canada and Montana (USA) by 1969, but was reintroduced in the 1980s to Canada, and subsequently spread into northern Montana. Swift foxes in this region are at the current northern range edge where winter conditions are harsher and persist longer than in their southern range (i.e., Colorado (USA) to Texas (USA)). We collected fine-scale locational data from swift foxes fitted with global positioning system collars to examine movement and resource-use patterns during winter of 2016–2017 in northeastern Montana. Our results suggest that swift foxes displayed three distinct movement patterns (i.e., resting, foraging, and travelling) during the winter. Distance to road decreased relative probability of use by 39%–46% per kilometre across all movement states and individuals, whereas the influence of topographic roughness and distance to crop field varied among movement states and individuals. Overall, while our findings are based on data from three individuals, our study suggests that across movement states during the critical winter season, swift foxes are likely using topography and areas near roads to increase their ability to detect predators.

Rewilding is emerging as a major issue in conservation. However, there are currently a dozen definitions of rewilding that include Pleistocene rewilding, island rewilding, trophic rewilding, functional rewilding and passive rewilding, and these remain fuzzy, lack clarity and, hence, hinder scientific discourse. Based on current definitions, it is unclear how the interventions described under the rewilding umbrella differ from those framed within the long-standing term "restoration". Even projects held up as iconic rewilding endeavours invariably began as restoration projects (e.g., Oostvaaderplassen; Pleistocene Park; the return of wolves to Yellowstone, etc.). Similarly, rewilding organisations (e.g., Rewilding Europe) typically began with a restoration focus. Scientific discourse requires precise language. The fuzziness of existing definitions of rewilding and lack of distinction from restoration practices means that scientific messages cannot be transferred accurately to a policy or practice framework. We suggest that the utility of "rewilding" as a term is obsolete, and hence recommend scientists and practitioners use "restoration" instead. Fil: Hayward, Matt W.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia. University of Petroria; Sudáfrica. Nelson Mandela University; Sudáfrica Fil: Scanlon, Robert J.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Callen, Alexandra. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Howell, Lachlan G.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Klop Toker, Kaya L.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Di Blanco, Yamil Edgardo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú | Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina Fil: Balkenhol, Niko. Universität Göttingen; Alemania Fil: Bugir, Cassandra K.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Campbell, Lachlan. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Caravaggi, Anthony. University of New South Wales; Australia Fil: Chalmers, Anita C.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Clulow, John. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia. Macquarie University; Australia Fil: Clulow, Simon. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia. Macquarie University; Australia Fil: Cross, Paul. Bangor University; Reino Unido Fil: Gould, John A.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Griffin, Andrea S.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Heurich, Marco. Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg; Alemania. Bavarian Forest National Park; Alemania Fil: Howe, Belinda K.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Jachowski, David S.. CLEMSON UNIVERSITY (CLEMSON UNIVERSITY); Fil: Jhala, Yadvendradev V.. Wildlife Institute of India; India Fil: Krishnamurthy, Ramesh. Wildlife Institute of India; India. University of British Columbia; Canadá Fil: Kowalczyk, Rafat. Polish Academy of Sciences; Argentina Fil: Lenga, Dean J.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Linnell, John D.C.. Norwegian Institute For Nature Research.; Noruega Fil: Marnewick, Kelly A.. Tshwane University of Technology; Sudáfrica Fil: Moehrenschlager, Axel. University of Calgary. Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy; Canadá Fil: Montgomery, Robert A.. Michigan State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Osipova, Liudmila. Universität Göttingen; Alemania Fil: Peneaux, Chloe. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Rodger, John C.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Sales, Lilian P.. Universidade Estadual de Campinas; Brasil Fil: Seeto, Rebecca G. Y.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Shuttleworth, Craig M.. Bangor University; Reino Unido Fil: Somers, Michael J.. University of Petroria; Sudáfrica Fil: Tamessar, Cottrell T.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Upton, Rose M. O.. Universidad de Newcastle; Australia Fil: Weise, Florian J.. University of Petroria; Sudáfrica. Claws Conservancy; Estados Unidos

The genetic consequences of reintroductions are rarely considered after releases cease, but long-term viability depends on linked demography and genetic health. Reintroductions of swift foxes Vulpes velox began after 45 years of extirpation from Canada; these have resulted in national down-listing to ‘threatened’ status, and the re-establishment of a small contiguous population in Montana, US. Demographic growth has been associated with stable levels of genetic diversity and growing effective population size, but evidence of two genetic clusters, and a recent decline in abundance could be cause for conservation concern depending on underlying mechanisms. We analysed individuals from two time points at 18 microsatellite loci to investigate whether the genetic structure is a consequence of having used two separate release sites and non-equilibrium population dynamics, but our results suggest that the population is likely at mutation- and migration-drift equilibrium. We examined habitat effects on relative gene flow and found limited evidence for cropland to be a dispersal barrier, but effects of terrain roughness suggest that more rugged landscapes may reduce dispersal capacity. Using parentage analysis we determined maximum dispersal distances of up to 50 km for females and 100 km for males including movements in either direction across the international border, but no mixing of genetic clusters was seen in either country. Greater genetic connectivity among than within respective countries necessitates careful co-management between Canada, where the species has the highest levels of legislative protection, and contiguous areas of the United States where limited trapping for fur is now permitted. We encourage similar analyses of conservation populations across international borders to determine how optimal genetic management can best mesh with different policies and conservation approaches among countries.

Negotiations in advance of the 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1) in October 2021 will set the course of international conservation for the next several decades, providing a critical opportunity to harmonize policy and set priorities for species conservation and climate change adaptation. The CBD is the foundational intergovernmental agreement on biodiversity conservation and drives both government actions and donor priorities. However, the treaty itself and its existing strategic framework (the “Aichi targets”) were agreed on some time ago (1992 and 2010, respectively) and so need to match advances in knowledge and evidence on the immediate and devastating impacts of climate change. Over just the past few years, the frequency and severity of extreme weather events have accelerated. By one recent estimate, one-third of species may now have an increased risk of extinction from climate change (2).

Inbreeding can depress individuals’ fitness traits and reduce population viability. However, studies that directly translate inbreeding depression on fitness traits into consequences for population viability, and further, into consequences for management choices, are lacking. Here, we estimated impacts of inbreeding depression (B, lethal equivalents) across life-history stages for an extinct-in-the-wild species, the sihek (Guam kingfisher, Todiramphus cinnamominus). We then projected population growth under different management alternatives with our B estimates incorporated, as well as without inbreeding depression (B = 0) or with a conventional default B. We found that inbreeding depression severely impacted multiple life-history stages, and directly translated into an effect on population viability under management alternatives. Simulations including our B estimates indicated rapid population decline, whereas projections without inbreeding depression or with default B suggested very gradual population decline. Further, our results demonstrate that incorporation of B across life-history stages can influence management decisions, as projections with our B estimates suggested a need to switch to increased breeding management to avoid species extinction and support wild releases. Our results demonstrate that magnitude of B across life-history stages can translate into demographic consequences, such that incorporation of multiple life-stage B into population models can be important for informed conservation management decision-making.

Captive breeding is often a last resort management option in the conservation of endangered species which can in turn lead to increased risk of inbreeding depression and loss of genetic diversity. Thus, recording breeding events via studbook for the purpose of estimating relatedness, and facilitating mating pair selection to minimize inbreeding, is common practice. However, as founder relatedness is often unknown, loss of genetic variation and inbreeding cannot be entirely avoided. Molecular genotyping is slowly being adopted in captive breeding programs, however achieving sufficient resolution can be challenging in small, low diversity, populations. Here, we evaluate the success of the Vancouver Island marmot (The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10592-022-01429-7.

Data paucity can seem to hinder science‐based approaches to the conservation of imperiled species. Yet, even individually limited datasets can improve understanding and management of complex ecological systems when carefully integrated. We demonstrate this approach to gain first insights on the transmission ecology of Yersinia pestis in Grasslands National Park (GNP), Canada, where both the bacterium and its rodent host, the nationally threatened black‐tailed prairie dog (BTPD, Cynomys ludovicianus), reach the northern limit of their distribution in North America. Primarily flea‐borne, Y. pestis causes sylvatic plague, a disease of exceptional relevance to both human health and wildlife conservation. We integrated data collected independently by multiple organizations in 2010–2017 across 17 BTPD colonies, where the species co‐occur with Richardson's ground squirrels (RGS, Urocitellus richardsonii). Available data included estimates of BTPD density and occupancy from visual counts and colony mapping; information on flea distribution, abundance, and prevalence of infection with Y. pestis from burrow swabbing, animal combing, and PCR assays; and the response of these variables to deltamethrin application on BTPD colony sections. Our analyses suggest that sylvatic plague in GNP is maintained at an enzootic level (i.e., chronic presence affecting a low proportion of individuals) with no evidence of widespread mortality, at least partially due to reduced flea activity after spring (percentage of prevalence in burrows: April–May = 11.69–33.89%; June–September: 1.75–3.19%), low prevalence of Y. pestis in flea samples (95% CI = 0.42–2.27%), and relatively low BTPD densities. Nonetheless, reducing flea prevalence through insecticide application had a positive effect on BTPD abundance, suggesting that enzootic plague is causing chronic mortality. Because flea prevalence on hosts was higher following drier years and higher on RGS than on BTPD (26.69% vs. 3.27%), insecticide application may be particularly important during dry periods and may need to take RGS and their movements into consideration. Differences between flea communities sampled by burrow swabbing and host combing suggest that plague surveillance should integrate both methods. Effects of projected climate change on vector life cycles, flea community composition, and host–parasite interactions warrant continued monitoring and an adaptive approach to species recovery actions and plague mitigation measures.

Conservation actions are critical to mitigating the growing number of threatened species worldwide. Previous studies show a consistent increase in one highly targeted type of conservation action: conservation translocation (i.e. the movement of species for conservation purposes). Will this trend continue? To gain insights into effectiveness and future trends, we examined past and proposed uses of conservation translocation in species recovery efforts in Canada, where species are assessed by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada and given legal protection and recovery plans under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Our review of 541 SARA-listed species indicates 55 have already been translocated, 49 are recommended for translocation, and 99 are under consideration, suggesting at least a doubling in future conservation translocations. Overall, translocation was relevant to recovery efforts for 38% of SARA-listed species. Species in need of translocation overwhelmingly belong to the vascular plants, but relatively few plants have been translocated to date, suggesting capacity and expertise in plant propagation and transplantation will be important. Species listed as Endangered under SARA were most commonly translocated, but the effectiveness of translocations relative to other actions could not be assessed due to insufficient detail in Federal recovery documents. Our finding that conservation translocations are projected to increase substantially in Canada begs the question whether such trends will also occur in other countries, and whether alignment between conservation need, policy direction, scientific planning and financial commitments will be sufficient to meet such demand.

Community-based conservation, which strives to simultaneously improve nature conservation and alleviate poverty, must provide biological and socioeconomic benefits that are linked through effective resilience mechanisms. To date, few community-based conservation initiatives have published comprehensive assessments that track performance in these elements of success. With 45% of the world's protected areas in comanagement with local communities, standardized measures to effectively evaluate the dual goals of community-based conservation are needed. We here introduce SPECCS, a user-friendly Standardized Protocol for Evaluating Community Conservation Success that incorporates an appraisal of data quality to responsibly assess progress over time or to compare effectiveness among different initiatives. We illustrate SPECCS's use by evaluating the Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary (WCHS) of northern Ghana 10 and 20 yr after its inception. The WCHS has the dual objective of protecting one of Ghana's few remaining hippopotamus populations while alleviating poverty in the surrounding communities through the creation of economic opportunity and infrastructure development. Results suggest stable project performance in the 10-yr (76%) and 20-yr (76%) evaluation, with an improvement in evaluation quality from 30% to 34%. The project is currently stronger in socioeconomic (performance 86%; quality 30%) than biological (60%; 32%) outcomes and in benefits (83%, 42%) than resilience (63%, 21%). Biological resilience is challenged by poor connectivity and limited project control over threats, whereas socioeconomic resilience is affected by a decision balance that continues to favor external stakeholders. SPECCS helps pinpoint strengths and weaknesses for timely adaptive management, strategic investments, and evidence-based recognition of community-based conservation successes.

With the loss of biodiversity accelerating, conservation translocations such as reintroductions are becoming an increasingly common conservation tool. Conservation translocations must source individuals for release from either wild or captive‐bred populations. We asked what proportion of North American conservation translocations rely on captive breeding and to what extent zoos and aquaria (hereafter zoos) fulfill captive breeding needs. We searched for mention of captive breeding and zoo involvement in all 1863 articles included in the North American Conservation Translocations database, which comprises journal articles and grey literature published before 2014 on conservation translocations in Canada, the United States, Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America before 2014 as identified by a comprehensive literature review. Conservation translocations involved captive breeding for 162 (58%) of the 279 animal species translocated. Fifty‐four zoos contributed animals for release. The 40 species of animals bred for release by zoos represented only 14% of all animal species for which conservation translocations were published and only 25% of all animal species that were bred for releases occurring in North America. Zoo contributions varied by taxon, ranging from zoo‐bred animals released in 42% of amphibian conservation translocations to zero contributions for marine invertebrates. Proportional involvement of zoos in captive‐breeding programs for release has increased from 1974 to 2014 (r = 0.325, p = 0.0313) as has the proportion of translocation‐focused scientific papers coauthored by zoo professionals (from 0% in 1974 to 42% in 2013). Although zoos also contribute to conservation translocations through education, funding, and professional expertise, increasing the contribution of animals for release in responsible conservation translocation programs presents a future conservation need and opportunity. We especially encourage increased dialogue and planning between the zoo community, academic institutions, and governments to optimize the direct contribution zoos can make to wildlife conservation through conservation translocations., Article impact statement: Zoos contribute animals to 14% of published North American animal conservation translocations and 25% of linked captive breeding programs.

Ricciardi and Simberloff highlight the dangers of some species introductions (which are real) but do not address the concurrent (and also very real) dangers of inaction when it comes to ameliorating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. We are not proposing what the guidance about assisted colonization should be or endorsing assisted colonization in all cases. We propose just the opposite—that a task force of experts develop guidance and best practice. Assisted colonization is going to be used and has been used ([ 1 ][1]). We agree that there are cases when it would not be appropriate, but maintaining a policy void will not stop people from taking action. Well-constructed policy guidance would assist conservationists and governments in making informed decisions. There are 196 governments that are Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, and it is far preferable to develop guidance on translocation decision-making that all of these governments could consult than to have 196 separate approaches. We agree with Ricciardi and Simberloff that predicting when an introduced species will become invasive is difficult. But that is all the more reason to have a structured decision-making protocol for assisted colonization—to ensure that risk is actually considered before action is taken and to take advantage of tools that conservation scientists have available when dealing with uncertain outcomes ([ 2 ][2]). The alternatives to regulated assisted colonization are either more unregulated translocations, which are already being conducted by interest groups in the absence of national or international policies ([ 1 ][1]), or no translocations at all, which locks in species extinction. Not using a conservation tool like assisted colonization is itself an active decision—a choice to do nothing ([ 3 ][3])—that will inevitably have negative consequences in light of the rapid deterioration of Earth's ecosystems and novel threats facing its species. In our view, both alternatives will be more detrimental to conservation outcomes. Ricciardi and Simberloff point to several examples of species that were threatened in their native range becoming invasive when introduced to remote islands or Australia. Notably, all of the releases they mention were made without any motivation or planning for conservation purposes, and all provide excellent examples of why a framework guiding assisted colonization is so important. It is exceedingly unlikely that a formal structured decision-making protocol for assisted colonization would have approved any of these translocations; we know of no serious proposals that would transgress major biogeographical barriers such as oceans or continents, let alone that would bring organisms to remote archipelagos already known to be highly susceptible to invasions. Ricciardi and Simberloff make a fair point that certain uses of the term “neonative” in other contexts have been problematic. But the binary distinction of “native” versus “alien” is arguably even more problematic, as it does not account for the inherently and fundamentally dynamic nature of species distributions and community composition—dynamism that is only increasing in the face of rapid climate change. 1. [↵][4]1. M. W. Schwartz, 2. T. G. Martin , Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1286, 15 (2013). [OpenUrl][5][CrossRef][6][PubMed][7][Web of Science][8] 2. [↵][9]1. M. A. McCarthy , Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1322, 77 (2014). [OpenUrl][10] 3. [↵][11]1. R. Phelan et al ., Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e371 (2021). [OpenUrl][12] [1]: #ref-1 [2]: #ref-2 [3]: #ref-3 [4]: #xref-ref-1-1 "View reference 1 in text" [5]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DAnn.%2BN.Y.%2BAcad.%2BSci.%26rft.volume%253D1286%26rft.spage%253D15%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1111%252Fnyas.12050%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F23574620%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [6]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1111/nyas.12050&link_type=DOI [7]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=23574620&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fsci%2F372%2F6545%2F925.2.atom [8]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=000324894500002&link_type=ISI [9]: #xref-ref-2-1 "View reference 2 in text" [10]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DAnn.%2BN.Y.%2BAcad.%2BSci.%26rft.volume%253D1322%26rft.spage%253D77%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [11]: #xref-ref-3-1 "View reference 3 in text" [12]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DConserv.%2BSci.%2BPract.%26rft.volume%253D3%26rft.spage%253D371e%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx

Given climate change, species' climatically suitable habitats are increasingly expected to shift poleward. Some imperilled populations towards the poleward edge of their species' range might therefore conceivably benefit from climate change. Interactions between climate and population dynamics may be complex, however, with climate exerting effects both indirectly via influence over food availability and more directly, via effects on physiology and its implications for survival and reproduction. A thorough understanding of these interactions is critical for effective conservation management. We therefore examine the relationship between climate, survival and reproduction in Canadian black-tailed prairie dogs, a threatened keystone species in an imperilled ecosystem at the northern edge of the species' range. Our analyses considered 8 years of annual mark-recapture data (2007-2014) in relation to growing degree days, precipitation, drought status and winter severity, as well as year, sex, age and body mass. Survival was strongly influenced by the interaction of drought and body mass class, and winter temperature severity. Female reproductive status was associated with the interaction of growing degree days and growing season precipitation, with spring precipitation and with winter temperature severity. Results related to body mass suggested that climatic variables exerted their effects via regulation of food availability with potential linked effects of food quality, immunological and behavioural implications, and predation risk. Predictions of future increases in drought conditions in North America's grassland ecosystems have raised concerns for the outlook of Canadian black-tailed prairie dogs. Insights gained from the analyses, however, point to mitigating species management options targeted at decoupling the mechanisms by which climate exerts its negative influence. Our approach highlights the importance of understanding the interaction between climate and population dynamics in peripheral populations whose viability might ultimately determine their species' ability to track climatically suitable space.

Simple Summary Acting to preserve biodiversity can involve harming individual animals. It has recently been argued that conventional practice has placed too much emphasis on the preservation of collective entities, such as populations and species, at the expense of suffering for individuals. At least some advocates of the ‘Compassionate Conservation’ movement find any deployment of lethal measures in the interests of conservation to be unacceptable. This shifts the balance of priorities too far. While conservationists have a duty to minimise harm, and to use non-lethal measures where feasible, there will be serious implications for conservation if this movement were to be widely influential. Furthermore, the ‘do-no-harm’ maxim the compassionate conservationists advocate does not always promote the welfare of individual animals. Abstract Human activity affecting the welfare of wild vertebrates, widely accepted to be sentient, and therefore deserving of moral concern, is widespread. A variety of motives lead to the killing of individual wild animals. These include to provide food, to protect stock and other human interests, and also for sport. The acceptability of such killing is widely believed to vary with the motive and method. Individual vertebrates are also killed by conservationists. Whether securing conservation goals is an adequate reason for such killing has recently been challenged. Conventional conservation practice has tended to prioritise ecological collectives, such as populations and species, when their interests conflict with those of individuals. Supporters of the ‘Compassionate Conservation’ movement argue both that conservationists have neglected animal welfare when such conflicts arise and that no killing for conservation is justified. We counter that conservationists increasingly seek to adhere to high standards of welfare, and that the extreme position advocated by some supporters of ‘Compassionate Conservation’, rooted in virtue ethics, would, if widely accepted, lead to considerable negative effects for conservation. Conservation practice cannot afford to neglect consequences. Moreover, the do-no-harm maxim does not always lead to better outcomes for animal welfare.

New species discoveries or the rediscovery of species once considered extinct or extirpated is good news, and yet prospects for long-term survival may be bleak if remnant populations are small and isolated. Because (re)discovered species are commonly rare or cryptic, data to inform appropriate conservation actions are usually sparse. We demonstrate how to make the most of available data, using the recent rediscovery in Ghana of sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei as an illustrative case study. Sitatunga were thought extinct in Ghana for over 50 years, but were ‘rediscovered’ by science in Avu Lagoon in 1998. Little is known about this species, especially West African populations, given its cryptic nature and inaccessible wetland habitat. Our approach to maximizing insights given limited data first paired observations of occurrence with landscape characteristics derived from open-access remote sensing data, creating the first ever habitat suitability model for sitatunga. This model then served to: (1) elucidate habitat preferences; (2) assess possible existence and connectivity of remnant populations elsewhere in Ghana; and (3) estimate maximum total and effective population size. Moreover, the timing of occurrence sightings provided insights into behavior. Sitatunga sightings were rare, heavily male-biased and mostly occurred between 6 pm and 6 am. Suitable habitat was limited, suggesting that habitat in and near Avu Lagoon is insufficient to ensure long-term population viability, and the existence of other, connected populations in Ghana is improbable. Without continued protection, and possibly additional interventions to augment population numbers or gene flow, the sitatunga in Avu Lagoon will likely go extinct. Our case study demonstrates the conservation challenges associated with the rediscovery of relict populations, and the utility of applying tools such as habitat suitability models to sparse data. Moreover, our research stresses the need to implement immediate conservation action upon species (re)discoveries to prevent (regional) extinction.

The use of conservation translocations to mitigate human effects on biodiversity is increasing, but how these efforts are allocated remains unclear. Based on a comprehensive literature review and online author survey, we sought to determine the goals of translocation efforts, whether they focus on species and regions with high threat and likelihood of perceived success, and how success might be improved. We systematically searched the ISI Web of Knowledge and Academic Search Complete databases to determine the species and regions of conservation translocations and found 1863 articles on conservation translocations in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, and Caribbean published from 1974 to 2013. We questioned 330 relevant authors to determine the motivation for translocations, how translocations were evaluated, and obstacles encountered. Conservation translocations in North America were geographically widespread (in 21 countries), increased in frequency over time for all animal classes (from 1 in 1974 to 84 in 2013), and included 279 different species. Reintroductions and reinforcements were more common in the United States than in Canada and Mexico, Central America, or the Caribbean, and their prevalence was correlated with the number of species at risk at national and state or provincial levels. Translocated species had a higher threat status at state and provincial levels than globally (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List categorization), suggesting that translocations may have been motivated by regional priorities rather than global risk. Our survey of authors was consistent with these results; most translocations were requested, supported, or funded by government agencies and downlisting species at national or state or provincial levels was the main goal. Nonetheless, downlisting was the least reported measure of success, whereas survival and reproduction of translocated individuals were the most reported. Reported barriers to success included biological factors such as animal mortality and nonbiological factors, such as financial constraints, which were less often considered in the selection of release sites. Our review thus highlights discrepancies between project goals and evaluation criteria and between risk factors considered and obstacles encountered, indicating room to further optimize translocation projects.

Translocations, the human-mediated movement and free-release of living organisms, are increasingly used as conservation tools in imperiled terrestrial ecosystems. Marine ecosystems, too, are increasingly threatened, and marine restoration efforts are escalating. But the methods and motivations for marine restoration are varied, so the extent to which they involve conservation-motivated translocations is unclear. Because translocations involve considerable risks, building on previous experience to establish and implement best practice guidelines for policy application is imperative. We conducted a global literature review to determine what marine conservation translocation experience exists. Our review indicates marine conservation translocations are widespread and increasingly common. Reinforcements and reintroductions predominate, but precedent for assisted colonizations and ecological replacements also exists. In 39 years, 487 translocation projects were conducted to conserve over 242 marine species or their ecosystems. Most projects involved coastal invertebrates (44%) or plants (30%). Few species were of conservation concern according to the IUCN Red List, likely reflecting the leading objective for most (60%) marine conservation translocations, which was ecosystem rather than species recovery. With currently no standard metrics for evaluating translocation success or ecosystem function, we recommend future projects follow the relevant IUCN guidelines and identify specific targets to measure the efficacy of translocations.

Wild egg collection can be a powerful tool in avian conservation management. It can be used to establish and augment captive breeding programs for conservation translocations, mitigate low productivity during incubation in wild populations, and further research on reproductive and environmental biology. Such benefits need to be balanced against potential risks, like detrimental demographic effects on source populations and disease transfer. A lack of thorough consideration and evaluation of associated benefits, risks, and trade-offs may prevent conservation managers from effectively utilising this powerful conservation tool, and may lead to poor management outcomes for wild populations. Structured decision making (SDM) can offer a framework for making decisions in the presence of uncertainty about how a system will respond to different management alternatives. We therefore advocate for the use of SDM to explore whether an egg collection program is a desirable management tool and, if so, to assess how new data iteratively informs decisions throughout all stages of the recovery program. Here, we review the current literature evaluating the practice of wild egg collection, provide an overview of the SDM process, and then use the whooping crane (Grus americana) as an example of how to conduct such an evaluation. Our overall aim is to provide guidance on how SDM can help develop best practice for responsible egg collection from wild populations to enable efficient and effective recovery of endangered avian species.

Reintroductions are increasingly used to reestablish species, but a paucity of long-term postrelease monitoring has limited understanding of whether and when viable populations subsequently persist. We conducted temporal genetic analyses of reintroduced populations of swift foxes (Vulpes velox) in Canada (Alberta and Saskatchewan) and the United States (Montana). We used samples collected 4 years apart, 17 years from the initiation of the reintroduction, and 3 years after the conclusion of releases. To assess program success, we genotyped 304 hair samples, subsampled from the known range in 2000 and 2001, and 2005 and 2006, at 7 microsatellite loci. We compared diversity, effective population size, and genetic connectivity over time in each population. Diversity remained stable over time and there was evidence of increasing effective population size. We determined population structure in both periods after correcting for differences in sample sizes. The geographic distribution of these populations roughly corresponded with the original release locations, which suggests the release sites had residual effects on the population structure. However, given that both reintroduction sites had similar source populations, habitat fragmentation, due to cropland, may be associated with the population structure we found. Although our results indicate growing, stable populations, future connectivity analyses are warranted to ensure both populations are not subject to negative small-population effects. Our results demonstrate the importance of multiple sampling years to fully capture population dynamics of reintroduced populations. Analisis Temporal de la Estructura Genetica para Evaluar la Dinamica Poblacional de Zorros (Vulpes velox) Reintroducidos Resumen Las reintroducciones cada vez se usan mas para restablecer especies, pero la escasez de monitoreos post-liberacion a largo plazo ha limitado el entendimiento de cuando y si las poblaciones viables persisten subsecuentemente. Realizamos analisis geneticos temporales de poblaciones reintroducidas de zorros (Vulpes velox) en Canada (Alberta y Saskatchewan) y en los Estados Unidos (Montana). Usamos muestras colectadas con 4 anos de diferencia, a 17 anos del inicio de la reintroduccion, y 3 anos despues de la conclusion de las liberaciones. Para evaluar el exito del programa, obtuvimos el genotipo de 340 muestras de pelo, tomadas del rango conocido en el 2000 y 2001, y el 2005 y 2006 en 7 loci microsatelites. Comparamos la diversidad, el tamano efectivo de la poblacion y la conectividad genetica a traves del tiempo en cada poblacion. La diversidad se mantuvo estable a traves de tiempo y hubo evidencia del incremento en tamano de la poblacion efectiva. Determinamos la estructura de la poblacion en ambos periodos despues de corregir diferencias en los tamanos de muestra. La distribucion geografica de estas poblaciones correspondio aproximadamente con los lugares originales de liberacion, lo que sugiere que estos sitios tienen efectos residuales sobre la estructura de la poblacion. Sin embargo, dado que ambos sitios de reintroduccion tenian poblaciones originarias similares, la fragmentacion de habitat debida a cultivos, puede asociarse con la estructura poblacional que hallamos. Aunque nuestros resultados senalan la existencia de poblaciones crecientes y estables, analisis futuros de conectividad garantizan asegurar que ambas poblaciones no esten sujetas a efectos negativos de poblaciones pequenas. Nuestros resultados demuestran la importancia de anos de muestreo multiple para capturar en su totalidad las dinamicas de poblacion de poblaciones reintroducidas.

Understanding limiting factors affecting population growth for imperilled species is crucial for conservation and management. This research investigates whether black–tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) populations are food limited on their northernmost range extent. We measured background vegetation rates and used food supplementation in a ‘before–after–control–impact’ (BACI) design to test whether increased food positively impacted prairie dog population density and colony expansion. Experimental results did not support food limitation. Overall, density increased from 2008 to 2009 but remained relatively similar between control and treatment plots. Correlations between natural, non-supplemented vegetation biomass and prairie dog density suggest that natural food availability in 2008 may have driven population growth into 2009. Natural food availability was highly variable among years and prairie dog densities may be impacted by food scarcity in some years but not others. Colony spatial expansion was greater in the absence of food supplementation, suggesting food scarcity may drive colony expansion. This research has important implications for the conservation and management of prairie dogs and species that depend on them such as reintroduced black–footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) in Canada and other populations across their range.

Worldwide, approximately 168 bird species are captive-bred for reintroduction into the wild. Programs tend to be initiated for species with a high level of endangerment. Depressed hatching success can be a problem for such programs and has been linked to artificial incubation. The need for artificial incubation is driven by the practice of multiclutching to increase egg production or by uncertainty over the incubation abilities of captive birds. There has been little attempt to determine how artificial incubation differs from bird-contact incubation. We describe a novel archive (data-logger) egg and use it to compare temperature, humidity, and egg-turning in 5 whooping crane (Grus americana) nests, 4 sandhill crane (G. canadensis) nests, and 3 models of artificial incubator; each of which are used to incubate eggs in whooping crane captive-breeding programs. Mean incubation temperature was 31.7° C for whooping cranes and 32.83° C for sandhill cranes. This is well below that of the artificial incubators (which were set based on a protocol of 37.6° C). Humidity in crane nests varied considerably, but median humidity in all 3 artificial incubators was substantially different from that in the crane nests. Two artificial incubators failed to turn the eggs in a way that mimicked crane egg-turning. Archive eggs are an effective tool for guiding the management of avian conservation breeding programs, and can be custom-made for other species. They also have potential to be applied to research on wild populations. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Captive breeding is key to management of severely endangered species, but maximizing captive production can be challenging because of poor knowledge of species breeding biology and the complexity of evaluating different management options. In the face of uncertainty and complexity, decision-analytic approaches can be used to identify optimal management options for maximizing captive production. Building decision-analytic models requires iterations of model conception, data analysis, model building and evaluation, identification of remaining uncertainty, further research and monitoring to reduce uncertainty, and integration of new data into the model. We initiated such a process to maximize captive production of the whooping crane (Grus americana), the world's most endangered crane, which is managed through captive breeding and reintroduction. We collected 15 years of captive breeding data from 3 institutions and used Bayesian analysis and model selection to identify predictors of whooping crane h...

To cite this article: Stalder J-F, Barbarot S, Wollenberg A, Holm EA, De Raeve L, Seidenari S, Oranje A, Deleuran M, Cambazard F, Svensson A, Simon D, Benfeldt E, Reunala T, Mazereeuv J, Boralevi F, Kunz B, Misery L, Mortz CG, Darsow U, Gelmetti C, Diepgen T, Ring J, Moehrenschlager M, Gieler U, Taieb A, for the PO-SCORAD Investigators Group. Patient-Oriented SCORAD (PO-SCORAD): a new self-assessment scale in atopic dermatitis validated in Europe. Allergy 2011; DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2011.02577.x. ABSTRACT: Background: Patient-oriented medicine is an emerging concept, encouraged by the World Health Organization, to greater involvement of the patient in the management of chronic diseases. The Patient-Oriented SCORing Atopic Dermatitis (PO-SCORAD) index is a self-assessment score allowing the patient to comprehensively evaluate the actual course of atopic dermatitis (AD), using subjective and objective criteria derived mainly from the SCORAD, a validated AD severity clinical assessment tool. Objectives: To validate the PO-SCORAD index in a large European population of patients exhibiting all forms of AD severity by assessing its correlation with the SCORAD index. Patients/methods: Four hundred and seventy-one patients (185 adults, 286 children) consulting for AD in hospitals from 9 European countries were recruited. The investigators and the patients used the SCORAD and PO-SCORAD scales, respectively, to assess AD severity at inclusion (D0) and 28 ± 7 days later (D28). Results: Patient-Oriented SCORing Atopic Dermatitis and SCORAD scores were significantly correlated at D0 [r = 0.67 (95% CI: 0.62; 0.72), P < 0.0001]. Consistency was confirmed at D28, with a stronger linear correlation between both scales [r = 0.79 (95% CI: 0.75; 0.83), P < 0.0001]. Absolute changes from baseline in SCORAD and PO-SCORAD scores were also significantly correlated [r= 0.71 (95% CI: 0.64; 0.76), P < 0.0001]. Although no specific intervention was investigated, AD improved over the study, with a decrease of PO-SCORAD and SCORAD scores from D0 to D28 by -19.19% and -24.39%, respectively. The consistency of the correlations was similar in the adult and children groups. Conclusions: This study validated the use of PO-SCORAD to self-assess AD severity and demonstrated its good correlation with SCORAD. (Less)

SUMMARYCommunity-based natural resource management has been accused of failing on social, economic or ecological grounds. Balanced assessments are rare, however, particularly in West Africa. This paper examines the first 10 years of Ghana's Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary using an evaluation framework that considers socioeconomic and ecological outcomes, as well as resilience mechanisms. Building upon traditional taboos against the killing of hippopotami, this initiative has attempted to conserve an imperilled large mammal, protect biodiversity and alleviate abject poverty amidst a bush meat crisis and complex ethnic diversity. Findings show that the Sanctuary has improved local livelihoods by spurring economic diversification and infrastructure development rates 2–8 times higher than in surrounding communities. Simultaneously, threats to biodiversity have subsided, hippopotamus numbers have remained stable and the Sanctuary's riparian habitats now harbour more bird species than comparable areas nearby. Improved social capital, true empowerment, an equitable distribution of benefits, ecological awareness among children and support for the Sanctuary, even amongst community members who were disadvantaged by its creation, speak to good long-term prospects. Risks remain, some of which are beyond the community's control, but evidence of socioecological resilience suggests that capacity exists to buffer risks and foster sustainability. Lessons learnt at Wechiau translate into recommendations for the planning, implementation and evaluation of future community-based conservation initiatives, including greater interdisciplinary integration and the use of adaptive co-management approaches.

Cultural traditions can conflict with modern conservation goals when they promote damage to fragile environments or the harvest of imperiled species. We explore whether and how traditional, culturally motivated species exploitation can nonetheless aid conservation by examining the recent "discovery" in Avu Lagoon, Ghana, of sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii gratus), a species familiar to locals, but not previously scientifically recorded in Ghana and regionally assumed extinct. Specifically, we investigate what role traditional beliefs, allied hunting practices, and the associated traditional ecological knowledge have played in the species' discovery and subsequent community-based conservation; how they might influence future conservation outcomes; and how they may themselves be shaped by conservation efforts. Our study serves to exemplify the complexities, risks, and benefits associated with building conservation efforts around traditional ecological knowledge and beliefs. Complexities arise from localized variation in beliefs (with cultural significance of sitatunga much stronger in one village than others), progressive dilution of traditional worldviews by mainstream religions, and the context dependence, both culturally and geographically, of the reliability of traditional ecological knowledge. Among the benefits, we highlight (1) information on the distribution and habitat needs of species that can help to discover, rediscover, or manage imperiled taxa if appropriately paired with scientific data collection; and (2) enhanced sustainability of conservation efforts given the cultivation of mutual trust, respect, and understanding between researchers and local communities. In turn, conservation attention to traditional ecological knowledge and traditionally important species can help reinvigorate cultural diversity by promoting the persistence of traditional belief and knowledge systems alongside mainstream worldviews and religions.

Although interspecific killing among carnivores can drive populations toward extinction, it is generally unknown how these intraguild interactions vary among populations, and whether the threat for vulnerable species can be mitigated. We studied imperiled populations of swift foxes (Vulpes velox) in Canada and kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis) in Mexico to determine potential differences in survival or predator-avoidance strategies. Survival rates were significantly lower in Canada than in Mexico because of mortality caused by coyotes (Canis latrans) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and the potential for population recovery is likely higher for the Mexican fox population. Differences in body size between coyotes and foxes, diet, group sizes, intraspecific home-range overlap, home-range sizes of coyotes, and movements of coyotes relative to foxes were similar among study areas. However, Canadian foxes had home ranges that were approximately 3 times larger than those in Mexico, and Canadian foxes were most frequently killed on their home-range peripheries. Home ranges of kit foxes decreased in size as the availability of black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies increased and associated refuge holes, which foxes could use to escape predation, were significantly more abundant in Mexico than in Canada. Small home ranges of foxes probably reduced encounters with coyotes in Mexico, and a high availability of refuges likely allowed foxes to elude predators when such encounters did occur. Differences in survival of foxes relative to mortality caused by coyotes demonstrate that interactions between carnivores can vary greatly between populations and that, in some situations, vulnerable species may be able to coexist with dominant carnivores despite a lack of large-scale habitat partitioning.

Passerine nests can benefit parental fitness, but defense against predators may be costly. Although this paradigm is well studied, no studies have been conducted on mountain bluebirds (Sialia currucoides). We observed the response of 17 bluebird pairs with nestlings to a mounted bobcat (Lynx rufus) and two controls. Bluebird pairs clearly differentiated the mounted predator and males moved closer to the bobcat than to the controls whereas females did not. This system is ideal to further refine nest-defense hypotheses.

According to Jorgensen, the definition of reintroductions is crucial to their proper implementation and she highlights a number of ambiguities in existing definitions, particularly associated with the concept of historic range. We could not agree more and have incorporated her suggested term of "indigenous range" rather than "historic range" into the current revision of the InternationalUnion for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Guidelines for Reintroductions and other Conservation Translocations (in preparation by IUCN Species Survival Commission Reintroduction and Invasive Species Specialist Groups). We also agree with Jorgensen's interpretation that reintroductions are not always necessitated by humans causing the extirpation of species. However, we disagree with other aspects of Jorgensen's argument such as the critique of Seddon, the interpretation of previous IUCN guidance documents, and the recommendation that the conservation community "rethink the basic definition of reintroduction" rather than moving toward other translocation-based interventions. With regard to the latter point, we emphasize that reintroductions are part of a spectrum of translocations and to focus on reintroductions alone would overlook the fact that introductions beyond a species' indigenous range are being attempted. The new revision of the IUCN guidelines incorporates the whole conservation translocation spectrum and aims to avoid the ambiguities of previous definitions highlighted by Jorgensen. © 2013 Society for Ecological Restoration.

Conservation programmes increasingly involve the translocation of animals to reinforce failing populations or establish new ones. To help guide translocation programmes of swift foxes ( Vulpes velox ) or other imperilled species, we aimed to discern factors affecting translocation success among reintroduced swift foxes in Canada. Post-release movements characterized three stages. In the initial acclimation phase, foxes moved erratically and quickly distanced themselves from release sites. During the establishment phase, distances from the release site did not change significantly but daily movements were more wide-ranging than those of concurrently tracked, resident swift foxes. In the final settlement phase, movements of translocated foxes reflected those of resident individuals. Radio-telemetry showed that survival and reproductive success were highest for swift foxes with small dispersal distances, suggesting that measures should be taken to acclimatize animals to release sites. Since females had lower survival rates than males, translocations should also use a greater proportion of females to establish balanced sex ratios in the population. Translocated juveniles dispersed less far but survived and reproduced as well as translocated adults, suggesting that juveniles can be used to establish translocated foxes in small, protected areas, while minimizing demographic effects on source populations. The fact that survival rates and litter sizes of translocated foxes were similar to those of resident animals indicates that translocation can be an effective reintroduction tool for this endangered species, and possibly other foxes.

Technological advances have raised the controversial prospect of resurrecting extinct species. Species DeExtinction should involve more than the production of biological orphans to be scrutinized in the laboratory or zoo. If DeExtinction is to realize its stated goals of deep ecological enrichment, then resurrected animals must be translocated (i.e., released within suitable habitat). Therefore, DeExtinction is a conservation translocation issue and the selection of potential DeExtinction candidates must consider the feasibility and risks associated with reintroduction. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Guidelines on Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations provide a framework for DeExtinction candidate selection. We translate these Guidelines into ten questions to be addressed early on in the selection process to eliminate unsuitable reintroduction candidates. We apply these questions to the thylacine, Yangtze River Dolphin, and Xerces blue butterfly.

Reintroductions are increasingly used to reestablish species, but a paucity of long-term postrelease monitoring has limited understanding of whether and when viable populations subsequently persist. We conducted temporal genetic analyses of reintroduced populations of swift foxes (Vulpes velox) in Canada (Alberta and Saskatchewan) and the United States (Montana). We used samples collected 4 years apart, 17 years from the initiation of the reintroduction, and 3 years after the conclusion of releases. To assess program success, we genotyped 304 hair samples, subsampled from the known range in 2000 and 2001, and 2005 and 2006, at 7 microsatellite loci. We compared diversity, effective population size, and genetic connectivity over time in each population. Diversity remained stable over time and there was evidence of increasing effective population size. We determined population structure in both periods after correcting for differences in sample sizes. The geographic distribution of these populations roughly corresponded with the original release locations, which suggests the release sites had residual effects on the population structure. However, given that both reintroduction sites had similar source populations, habitat fragmentation, due to cropland, may be associated with the population structure we found. Although our results indicate growing, stable populations, future connectivity analyses are warranted to ensure both populations are not subject to negative small-population effects. Our results demonstrate the importance of multiple sampling years to fully capture population dynamics of reintroduced populations. Análisis Temporal de la Estructura Genética para Evaluar la Dinámica Poblacional de Zorros (Vulpes velox) Reintroducidos.

A detailed understanding of the population dynamics of many amphibian species is lacking despite concerns about declining amphibian biodiversity and abundance. This paper explores temporal patterns of occupancy and underlying extinction and colonization dynamics in a regionally imperiled amphibian species, the Northern leopard frog (Lithobates pipiens) in Alberta. Our study contributes to elucidating regional occupancy dynamics at northern latitudes, where climate extremes likely have a profound effect on seasonal occupancy. The primary advantage of our study is its wide geographic scale (60,000 km2) and the use of repeat visual surveys each spring and summer from 2009-2013. We find that occupancy varied more dramatically between seasons than years, with low spring and higher summer occupancy. Between spring and summer, colonization was high and extinction low; inversely, colonization was low and extinction high over the winter. The dynamics of extinction and colonization are complex, making conservation management challenging. Our results reveal that Northern leopard frog occupancy was constant over the last five years and thus there is no evidence of decline or recovery within our study area. Changes to equilibrium occupancy are most sensitive to increasing colonization in the spring or declining extinction in the summer. Therefore, conservation and management efforts should target actions that are likely to increase spring colonization; this could be achieved through translocations or improving the quality or access to breeding habitat. Because summer occupancy is already high, it may be difficult to improve further. Nevertheless, summer extinction could be reduced by predator control, increasing water quality or hydroperiod of wetlands, or increasing the quality or quantity of summer habitat.