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One of the most urgent and widely discussed problems of international organisations is their need for democratic legitimacy. In this article, a novel approach is developed for the study of democrac...

The institution of the participation of the social factor in the justice in Poland has a long and well-established tradition. In accordance with Art. 4 of the Law on the System of Common Courts, citizens take part in administering justice through the participation of lay judges in hearing cases before courts in the first instance. The jurors are elected by the borough councils for a four-year term. Dismissal of a lay judge before the end of his term of office is possible in the cases enumerated in the Act. This article attempts to analyse the issue of the impact of the circumstances of instituting private indictment against a lay judge on the possibility of dismissing a lay judge from his function at the request of the president of the court. The article presents the following problems and issues: is the initiation of a general criminal procedure against a lay judge for an offense prosecuted on a private indictment basis for the dismissal of a lay judge by the municipal council?; Does instituting criminal proceedings against a person for an offense prosecuted by private indictment prevent that person from standing for the post of a common court lay judge? Is a person running for the post of a common court lay judge obliged to disclose in the course of the procedure of electing lay judges (before being elected by the borough council) that there are private criminal proceedings against that person? The findings made by the authors lead to the conclusion that in the event of instituting private criminal proceedings against a lay judge, the provision of Art. 166 § 2 point 3 of the Act on the System of Common Courts does not apply, and the fact of prosecuting a lay judge as a result of bringing a private indictment to a court should not constitute the basis for a motion by the president of the court to the municipal council to dismiss a lay judge from his function.

The concept of freedom of the press is closely linked to freedom of expression. Freedom of the media is an instrument of free speech and is derived from the freedom of expression, independence of thought, opinion, ideas and judgement. Freedom of the media is possible only if the state ensures real independence of expression, access to reliable information, freedom of publication and publishing. Respecting media freedom through non-interference by public auReceived thorities is an important part of the European standard of democracy, and is aligned with the essence of the liberal democratic regime. Ireland has a diversified market of newspapers and magazines, created by private entities, operating on the basis of well-developed guarantees of freedom of establishment that are deeply rooted in the Irish legal tradition. Freedom of speech, which is also enjoyed by the media, is enshrined in the Constitution, and appropriate institutions have been established to protect it, defending the right of the media to obtain and disseminate information, but also to safeguard the principles of law and ethics in journalism, combining the right of the press to express opinions and freely describe reality with the right of the beneficiaries of this activity (readers) to obtain information that is reliable, true, honest and credible. This article attempts to characterize the legal basis of press freedom in Ireland (both domestic and international) and to describe the institutions that uphold this freedom, ensuring that the media system functions properly as one of the subsystems of the social system.

The integration of renewable energy generation with water treatment techniques, based on geothermal water and energy resources, represents a new and interesting research direction. This paper presents a model study aimed at evaluating the twofold utilisation of geothermal water potential: as an energy resource necessary for the desalination process and as a source of wastewater used in the desalination process. The key objective of this work is to critically evaluate the feasibility of integrating electricity generation and technological processes based on membrane techniques solely on the basis of the potential of low-enthalpy geothermal waters. The results of the use of two steps of BWRO on a semi-production scale showed a high quality of permeate in accordance with physical, chemical, microbiological, potential organic and toxic substance contents and also its radiological characteristics. With respect to the feasibility of implementing the organic Rankine cycle or the Kalina cycle, an analysis was carried out that focused on using geothermal water extracted in the temperature range of 80–95 °C. The mass flow rate of geothermal water directed to the power plant was assumed to be in the range 10–150 kg/s. The mineral content of the geothermal water used in the model was 3 g/L.

The Polish Peasant in Europe and America is one of the foundational works of American and world sociology, famous for its innovative qualitative methodology. Its authors proposed new theoretical ideas, including a concept of social causality and a new theory of personality combining a biologistic concept of temperament with a culturalist concept of character. Interpreters of the book still disagree about the extent of each author’s actual contribution to the work and about its scientific status in light of modern sociological theories. This article claims that to understand the book one has to take into account the previous intellectual trajectories of both authors. As a theoretical dialogue between representatives of two contrary approaches, the work may serve as an alternative to the supposed theoretical “convergence” offered two decades later by Talcott Parsons.

The agricultural sector, which is highly dependent on water, is urged to build on improved water management practices and explore available options to match supply and demand because of the water scarcity risks and a sustainable and productive agri-food chain. Geothermal water is an energy source used to generate electricity and/or heat. After harnessing its energy, the remaining water can be used as a water source for irrigation following treatment because of its high ionic content. Geothermal fields are mostly located in rural areas where agricultural activities exist. This would be a good match to decrease the transportation cost of irrigation water. The energy demand of the desalination process for agriculture is higher, requiring additional post-treatment processes. Fossil fuels to fulfill the energy requirements are becoming expensive, and greenhouse gas emissions are harmful to the environment. Thus, efforts should be directed towards integrating renewable energy resources into desalination process. This work focuses on presenting a comprehensive review of geothermal water desalination which is powered by renewable energy and provides specific cases from Turkey and Poland. Furthermore, possible new generation renewable energy systems in desalination are introduced, considering their potential application in the desalination of geothermal water for agricultural irrigation., TUBITAK-NCBR [118Y490-POLTUR3/Geo4Food/4/2019]; Presidency of the Turkish Abroad and Associated Communities (YTB), This study was financed by an international research project funded by TUBITAK-NCBR (Project No: 118Y490-POLTUR3/Geo4Food/4/2019). We are very thankful to Izmir Geothermal Inc., Izmir, for enabling us to mount our mini-pilot system in their sector. Y.A. Jarma would like to thank the Presidency of the Turkish Abroad and Associated Communities (YTB) for a Ph.D. scholarship.

The aim of the paper is to present a global analysis of a precast, reinforced building structure. At the design stage, information about structural behaviour of particular elements and the whole structure as well as its response to applied loads are obtained. While solving the problem, the load-bearing elements and the type and deformability of connections have to be defined. The latter is especially significant in the case of precast structure models. Calculations according to the analytical method are going to be verified by the finite element method.

The last decade has seen a worldwide increase in the use of alternative energy sources, especially renewable energy (RE), including its application in desalination. In the past many experimental and pilot investigations were presented which allowed the costs and effectiveness of such integrated solutions to be estimated. The present review describes experience related to the use of solar thermal technologies (solar collector and concentrated solar power technologies), solar electricity (photovoltaic and concentrator photovoltaics), wind, hydroelectric (hydropower, tidal, wave and ocean thermal energy), biomass and geothermal energy (power and thermal) as well as hybrid systems. The costs relating to energy and desalinated water production are investigated in the case of various technological processes used in desalination. The main directions for development of the RE systems investigated are discussed and their advantages and disadvantages are assessed. Such a comprehensive review showed that the expansion of the effective use of RE sources is still hampered by several techno-economic aspects. The paper focuses on the main concerns of the need to optimise energy processes, especially by creating more energy-efficient and economically effective solutions, energy storage, energy recovery and the expansion of off-grid systems. As a result of the analysis it was concluded that, despite some disadvantages, the combining of RE with desalination processes requires further intensive research and demonstration units for longer term performance. Regulations to develop less energy-intensive desalination technologies are also still needed.

The article presents an assessment of the potential for using low enthalpy geothermal resources for electricity generation on the basis of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (southern Poland). Identification the locations providing the best prospects with the highest efficiency and possible gross power output. Thermodynamic calculations of power plants were based on data from several geothermal wells: the Bańska PGP-1, Bańska IG-1, Bańska PGP-3 and Chochołów PIG-1 which are working wells located in one of the best geothermal reservoirs in Poland. As the temperature of geothermal waters from the wells does not exceed 86 °C, considerations include the use of binary technologies—the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) and Kalina Cycle. The potential gross capacity calculated for existing geothermal wells will not exceed 900 kW for ORC and 1.6 MW for Kalina Cycle. In the case of gross electricity, the total production will not exceed 3.3 GWh/year using the ORC, and will not exceed 6.3 GWh/year for the Kalina Cycle.

The housing sector, especially with respect to energy generation to provide heating and domestic hot water, has been identified, after transport, as contributing the most to air pollution and the occurrence of low emissions in Poland. In particular, this applies to areas where there is a lack of heating and gas networks. This paper presents the results of calculations relating to the emission of atmospheric pollutants (TSP—total suspended particles as particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5, SOx—sulphur dioxide, NOx—nitrogen dioxide, CO—carbon monoxide) from individual sources of heat. The fact that a commune that does not have the network infrastructure, noted above, was taken into consideration, and the structure of heat generation was estimated on the basis of coal, fuel oil and biomass. The analysis was carried out taking into account the variable heat generation structure in households depending on the fuels used, including the heating values of fuels and the efficiency of heating devices. Based on the calculations carried out, an ecological effect was obtained by assuming the replacement of heat sources by devices with higher efficiency and also by considering the possibility of using heat pumps as a zero-emission solution in the households. This article attempts to answer the question posed by municipal authorities on how to limit the negative impact on the environment of individual heating devices in order to achieve sustainable development, including the specific conditions resulting from limited infrastructural opportunities.

The paper shows thermal tests results (thermal conductivity, specific heat) carried out during the research project to recognize the potential of hot dry rocks for heat and electricity production in Poland. Analysis of such parameters of the rock medium has fundamental significance in search of structures for location of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Analyses of thermal conductivity as well as specific heat determine the possibility of effective extraction of heat from hot rock formations and its efficient transfer to the land surface. Reservoir rock should be characterized by the lowest possible porosity and permeability, and the highest possible thermal conductivity. In order to recognize reservoir parameters of rocks that form potential reservoirs for EGS, 300 samples of sedimentary rocks were taken from 11 wells located in central Poland. For samples, sizes of which enabled measurement of thermal parameters, tests of thermal conductivity and specific heat were carried out. Independently, measurements of porosity were made. The porosity magnitude determines values of measured thermal parameters. Measurements of thermal conductivity of rocks were made for 24 samples collected from Triassic, Permian and Carboniferous deposits in six wells. Measurements of specific heat on rock samples were made for 20 rock samples. Among sedimentary rocks, principally sandstones and limestones with reservoir parameters favourable for this type of systems are considered to be petrogeothermal reservoirs and are often characterized by favourable thermal parameters for EGS. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sformułowany przez Maxa Webera, słynny postulat wolności od sądów wartościujących jest do dziś ważnym wyzwaniem dla socjologii, która zarazem pragnie zachować epistemiczną obiektywność oraz nie tracić swego krytycznego ostrza pozwalającego jej odgrywać inspirującą i mediującą rolę w debacie publicznej. W prezentowanym tekście autor proponuje interpretację tekstów Webera poświęconych temu problemowi i opowiada się za interpretacją, zgodnie z którą koncepcji Werturteilsfreiheit oraz Wertbeziehung nie należy traktować odrębnie czy też jako sprzecznych ze sobą, lecz raczej postrzegać postulat wolności od sądów wartościujących jako wynikający z idei odniesienia do wartości. Wedle propozycji autora Weber przedstawia w swych tekstach obraz ludzkiej drogi poznania, która stanowi odpowiedź na dylematy perspektyw wartościujących.

Platon nie należy do ulubieńców teorii socjologicznej, choć stworzył ogólną teorię społeczeństwa, która zrywa z mitologicznymi wyobrażeniami człowieka. Jeśli bywa przedmiotem rozważań, to raczej jako bohater negatywny. Przykładem może być poświęcone mu dzieło Alvina Gouldnera Enter Plato. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu wykroczenie poza jednoznacznie krytyczną perspektywę Gouldnera i wskazanie, jakie korzyści może przynieść sięganie do dialogów Platońskich.

Arbitration as a method of addressing cross-border commercial disputes has enjoyed a remarkable, global success. The ‘phenomenal boom’ of commercial arbitration has led to a far-reaching replacement of domestic litigation by this mechanism, and to privatization of resolution of international commercial cases. This highly successful example of legal globalization, achieved – atypically – primarily by private means, is also a dynamically evolving phenomenon.The article identifies three key areas of tensions, which generate new developments in commercial arbitration. First, the tension between procedural formality and flexibility can be observed, as reflected in the well-established judicialization trend, confronted with a recent renewed interest in mediation and 'soft' hybrid procedures. Second, concurrence of global and local influences (as seen in the American and Asian ‘waves’ in arbitration) affects, inter alia, professional culture of arbitration practitioners. Finally, the tension between public and private interests and values, which influences procedural preferences and solutions, though certainly not as prominent as in investment arbitration, can be identified.As a consequence, methodological tools, used for empirical research on international commercial arbitration are revisited, so as to allow for capturing new developments in this field in a most accurate, possible manner. A highly innovative, multi-method, sequential model of research is introduced, which addresses both the static and dynamic components of the field, and is based on a triangular structure of formal institutions, social practices and cultural values. A systematic, paced combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is proposed, with an introduction of tools not used on a larger scale in the study of arbitration so far, such as ethnographic research and focus group interviews.

The recognition of geological and thermal conditions of the rock mass in the case of designing a vertical borehole heat exchanger as the ground source for heat pump installations is a key issue affecting the efficiency of the heating/cooling system operation. This is especially important for large-sized buildings with a high demand for thermal power, which affects into the size of the ground source installation. The aim of the article is to indicate the difference in the obtained results concerning thermal calculations at the design stage of the brine/water heat pump installation with the vertical heat exchanger, in relation to the theoretical values of the rock mass thermal conductivity and the real (measured) values obtained during the thermal response test (TRT). For this purpose, calculations of thermal efficiency from one meter of the current rock mass were made, with particular emphasis on the change in the value of the thermal conductivity coefficient in the tested drilling profiles. Correspondingly, heat pump coefficients of performance (COP) were calculated, which allowed to analyze the influence of the over/undersizing phenomenon of the ground source on the technical parameters of the heat pump's operation and the economic effect of the investment.

The basic source of information for determining the temperature distribution in the rock mass and thus the potential for thermal energy contained in geothermal water conversion to electricity, are: temperature measurements in stable geothermic conditions, temperature measurements in unstable conditions, measurements of maximum temperatures at the bottom of the well. Incorrect temperature estimation can lead to errors during thermodynamic parameters calculation and consequently economic viability of the project. The analysis was performed for the geothermal water temperature range of 86–100°C, for dry working fluid R245fa. As a result of the calculations, the data indicate an increase in geothermal power as the geothermal water temperature increases. At 86°C, the potential power is 817.48 kW, increases to 912.20 kW at 88°C and consequently to 1 493.34 kW at 100°C. These results are not surprising, but show a scale of error in assessing the potential that can result improper interpretation of the rock mass and geothermal waters temperature.

The counterculture is a provocative concept as far as it means a rejection of culture while being itself a part of culture and as far as it talks the young generation into a rebellion but requiring a mature project of society. It is also provocative in that it rejects modernization and at the same time promotes a moral universalizm which is a hallmark of modernity. The author of the paper attempts to find the constitutive ideas of the counterculture and to compare them with other ideologies, their advantages and drawbacks. Moreover, it indicates the significance of counterculture for a proper understanding of social movements. The theme which proves to be the central one in the counterculture is the tension between an artistic and philosophical interpretation of subject.