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Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing individuals were assessed on three neuropsychological tests of executive function (EF) and on scales of autism symptoms and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing symptoms at baseline (T1; N = 88, Mage = 11.8 years, 73% males), 2-year (T2; 99% retention, Mage = 13.9 years), and 10-year follow-ups (T3; 75% retention, Mage = 21.4 years). An EF composite score from T1 significantly predicted internalizing symptoms at T2 (β = .228) and internalizing and externalizing symptoms at T3 (β = .431 and .478, respectively), when controlling for age and autism symptoms. OThe findings suggest that EF difficulties are a long-term risk factor for more co-occurring symptoms. .

Background: This study extends long-term predictive research on ADHD by including both neuropsychological and symptom measures at baseline in adolescence as predictors of diagnostic persistence 25 years later. Methods: Nineteen males with ADHD and 26 healthy controls (HC; M/F = 13/13), were assessed in adolescence and 25 years later. Measurements at baseline included a comprehensive test battery measuring eight neuropsychological domains, an IQ estimate, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and the Global Assessment Scale of Symptoms. Differences between ADHD Retainers, Remitters, and HC were calculated with ANOVAs, and potential predictions of differences in the ADHD group by linear regression analyses. Results: Eleven (58%) participants retained their ADHD diagnoses at follow-up. Motor Coordination and Visual perception at baseline predicted diagnosis at follow-up. CBCL Attention problems at baseline in the ADHD group predicted variance in diagnostic status. Conclusion: Lower-order neuropsychological functions related to motor function and perception are important long-time predictors of persistence of ADHD.

Objective: We tested the hypotheses that (1) a diagnosis of ADHD in childhood or adolescence is associated with reduced quality of life (QoL) and everyday functioning in emerging adulthood, and (2) executive function (EF) deficits, internalizing difficulties, and ADHD symptoms predict reduced QoL and more functional impairments. Method: We assessed 85 children and adolescents with ADHD and 50 typically developing (TD) peers at baseline ( Mage = 11.6 years, 58% males), 2-year follow-up, and 10-year follow-up with neuropsychological tests of EF and self-reports. Results: Individuals with ADHD reported lower QoL and functional impairments in emerging adulthood compared to TD peers. More internalizing difficulties and ADHD symptoms at baseline and 2-year follow-up significantly predicted lower QoL and more functional impairments at the 10-year follow-up. Conclusion ADHD and internalizing difficulties in childhood or adolescence have a negative impact on QoL and everyday functioning in emerging adulthood.

Objective This 10-year longitudinal study investigated the developmental trajectories of executive functioning (EF) in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), compared to typically developing (TD) individuals from childhood into young adulthood. Method There were 173 participants at baseline (T1; ASD = 38 (eight with co-occurring ADHD), ADHD = 85, TD = 50; Mage = 11.7 years, SD = 2.1), 168 at 2-year follow-up (T2) and 127 at 10-year follow-up (T3). Participants were assessed with three neuropsychological tests aimed at capturing central components of EF: working memory/Letter-Number Sequencing Test (LNS), inhibition/Color-Word Interference Test, Condition 3 (CWIT3), and flexibility/Trail Making Test, Condition 4 (TMT4). Test results were analyzed using linear mixed models (LMM). Results At baseline, the TD participants outperformed the ASD and ADHD participants on all three tests. From T1 to T2, the ASD participants had less improvement than the ADHD and TD participants on the LNS test (p = .007 and .025, respectively), while having more improvement on the CWIT3 relative to the TD participants (p = .027). From T2 to T3, the ADHD participants had less improvement on the LNS test than the ASD and TD participants (p = .004 and .021, respectively). Conclusions The ASD and ADHD groups mainly displayed similar maturation on the neuropsychological measures, and displayed continuous impairment relative to the TD group. The need for support and facilitation of EF in school, workplace, and social arenas might continue into young adulthood among certain individuals with ASD and ADHD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive deficits are a core feature of schizophrenia, and impairments are present in groups at-risk for psychosis. Most at-risk studies include young adults and not younger age-groups, such as adolescents. Participants are usually help-seeking individuals, even though risk factors may also be present in non-help seeking adolescents. We aim to explore cognitive functions in a group of non-help-seeking 15-year-old adolescents at risk for psychosis compared to age- and gender matched controls, including particular focus on specific cognitive domains. Hundred participants (mean age = 15.3) were invited after completing the 14-year-old survey distributed by the Norwegian Mother-, Father- and Child Study. At-risk adolescents were selected based on high scores on 19 items assessing both psychotic experiences and anomalous self-experiences. Matched controls were selected from the same sample. Cognitive functioning was assessed using the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery and IQ using Wechsler’s Abbreviated Test of Intelligence. We found that the adolescents at-risk for psychosis had significantly poorer scores than controls on the composite score of the MCCB. IQ scores were also significantly lower in the at-risk group. The results highlight general cognitive deficits as central in a group of non-help-seeking adolescents at-risk for psychosis. Results indicate that the development of cognitive impairments starts early in life in at-risk groups. It is still unclear whether specific cognitive domains, such as verbal learning, are related to psychotic symptoms or may be specifically vulnerable to symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Background Individuals with autism tend to have a reduced quality of life across the lifespan. This reduced quality of life is a result of autism traits, mental distress, and poor person/environment fit. In the present study, we examined the mediating role of internalizing and externalizing problems on the relationship between having an autism diagnosis and perceived quality of life in a longitudinal design. Methods There were in total 66 participants in a combined group of emerging adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (mean age 22.2 years), and a group without autism (mean age 20.9 years) prospectively followed for ten years through three assessment waves at 12, 14 and 22 years. Participants filled out the Perceived Quality of Life Questionnaire. Total and indirect effects were tested in serial mediation analysis. Results Results revealed a significant effect of autism on quality of life. Internalizing problems at two-year follow-up significantly mediated quality of life in emerging adulthood while externalizing problems did not. The direct effect of autism on quality of life did not reach statistical significance after entering internalizing problems as a mediator. Conclusion There is a significant correlation between having autism and poor quality of life; however, this correlation is mediated by adolescent internalizing problems' impact on the current perceived quality of life.

We assessed 85 children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and 50 typically developing children (TD) (Mage = 11.59, 57.8% boys) with the Hungry Donkey Task (HDT) at baseline and 2-year follow-up, and the Iowa Gambling Task at 10-year follow-up (75% retention). Improvement in the proportion of advantageous choices was observed from two- to 10-year follow-up, but the ADHD group improved less and was outperformed by the TD group at the 10-year follow-up. More advantageous choices on the HDT at baseline predicted less risky behaviour at 10-year follow-up. Male sex and more inattentive or externalizing symptoms at base line predicted more risky behaviour.

Objective Cognitive difficulties are among the most disruptive and disabling problems reported by chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) sufferers. Acute Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a trigger of chronic fatigue (CF) and CFS. The aim of this study was to investigate subjectively reported and objectively measured cognitive functioning in fatigued and non-fatigued adolescents six months after EBV infection. Methods A total of 195 adolescents (12–19 years) with acute EBV infection were followed prospectively for six months, after which they were grouped as chronically fatigued (CF+) and non-fatigued (CF−) cases based on questionnaire score; the CF+-group was further subgrouped according to CFS diagnosis. A group of 70 healthy controls was also included. Groups were cross-sectionally compared on objective measures of processing speed, executive functions and memory, and subjective cognitive functioning. Results There were no group differences regarding objective cognitive measures, but the CF+-group reported significantly (p

Cognitive impairments in schizophrenia are well-documented, present across several cognitive domains and found to be relatively stable over time. However, there is a high degree of heterogeneity and indications of domain-specific developmental courses. The present study investigated the 10-year cognitive course in participants with first-episode schizophrenia (FES) and healthy controls on eight cognitive domains and a composite score, looking at group- and individual-level changes. A total of 75 FES participants and 91 healthy controls underwent cognitive assessment at baseline and follow-up. Linear mixed models were used for group-level analyses and reliable change index (RCI) analyses were used to investigate individual change. The prevalence of clinically significant impairment was explored at both time points, using a cut-off of < −1.5 SD, with significant cognitive impairment defined as impairment on ≥2 domains. Group-level analyses found main effects of group and time, and time by group interactions. Memory, psychomotor processing speed and verbal fluency improved, while learning, mental processing speed and working memory were stable in both groups. FES participants showed deteriorations in attention and cognitive control. Individual-level analyses mainly indicated stability in both FES and controls, except for a higher prevalence of decline in cognitive control in FES. At baseline, 68.8 % of FES participants had clinically significant impairment, compared to 62.3 % at follow-up. We mainly found long-term stability and modest increases in cognition over time in FES, as well as a high degree of within-group heterogeneity. We also found indications of deterioration in participants with worse cognitive performance at baseline.

Deficits in executive functions (EFs) are theorized to play an important role in causing functional impairment and associated psychopathology in individuals with ADHD. The objective of this study was to examine the role of EFs and ADHD symptoms as longitudinal predictors of psychopathology symptoms in individuals with ADHD and typically developing individuals. We assessed individuals with and without ADHD (N = 135) with neuropsychological tests of EFs and scales of ADHD symptoms and psychopathology symptoms at baseline (T1; Mage = 11.59, 57.8% boys), 2-year follow-up (T2; Mage = 13.63, 97% retention), and 10-year follow-up (Mage = 21.18, 75% retention). Baseline EFs predicted psychopathology symptoms at the 2- and the 10-year follow-up, explaining 17% and 12% of the variance, respectively. Baseline EFs predicted both internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the predictive value of EFs on psychopathology symptoms at 10-year follow-up was accounted for by cognitive flexibility. Baseline ADHD symptoms were a significant predictor of all symptom domains at all time points. Thus, childhood EFs, in particular cognitive flexibility, can predict psychopathology symptoms in emerging adulthood beyond the effect of ADHD symptoms. This supports dominating theories of ADHD stating that executive dysfunction contributes to the observed phenotype, including associated psychopathology symptoms, and suggests that EFs are important targets of interventional efforts.

Cognitive impairments are core features of established schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). However, it remains unclear whether specific cognitive functions are differentially impaired pre-onset and at what age these impairments can be detected. The purpose of this review was to elucidate these issues through a systematic summary of results from longitudinal studies investigating impairment in specific cognitive domains as antecedents of SSD. Relevant studies were identified by electronic and manual literature searches and included any original study of cognitive domains any time pre-onset of SSDs that included a control group. Effect sizes were calculated by domain for studies comparing high-risk participants who developed SSD with those who did not. The strongest evidence for impairment pre-onset was for mental processing speed, verbal learning and memory, executive function, and social cognition. Some verbal impairments, like language abilities at age 3 and verbal learning and memory at age 7, may develop as static deficits. Conversely, some non-verbal impairments, like mental processing speed, visuospatial abilities, and visual working memory manifest as developmental lag and become significant later in life. Most effect sizes were small to moderate, except for verbal fluency (d′ = 0,85), implying this impairment as central in high-risk participants who develop SSD. The present review documents extensive cognitive impairments pre-onset of SSD, and that these impairments start early in life, in line with the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. Increased knowledge about cognitive impairments preonset can provide a better basis for understanding the complex pathogenesis of SSD as well as informing cognitive remediation programs.

Introduction: Cognitive impairments are common in both Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and schizophrenia, but it is unclear whether the pattern of difficulties is similar or different in the two disorders. This cross-sectional and longitudinal study compared the neuropsychological functioning in adolescents with ASD with adolescents with Early Onset Schizophrenia (EOS).Methods: At baseline and at two-year follow-up, participants were assessed with a brief neuropsychological test battery measuring executive functions, visual and verbal learning, delayed recall and recognition and psychomotor speed.Results: We found similar levels of neuropsychological impairment across groups and over time in the adolescents with ASD or EOS. Adolescents in both groups did not improve significantly on verbal learning, verbal delayed recall, visual learning, visual delayed recall or visual delayed recognition, and both groups performed poorer on verbal recognition. Both groups improved on measures of psychomotor processing and executive functions.Conclusion: The findings suggest that it may be difficult to differentiate adolescents with EOS and ASD based on neuropsychological task performance. An implication of the results is that adolescents with either disorder may benefit from a similar approach to the treatment of cognitive impairment in the disorders. [Southern and Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority]: [2004-259,2006-186]; [Innlandet Hospital Trust]: [150170]; [Regional Resource Center for Autism, ADHD, Tourette’s syndrome and Narcolepsy ]: [150182]

Objective: The aim of the study was to compare the development of working memory and preliminary stages of attentional processing in individuals with ADHD over a 23- to 25-year period. Method: Individuals with ADHD (n = 19) and healthy controls (n = 26) were followed up after 13 years (T2) and 23 to 25 years (T3) after initial assessment (T1). They were reassessed with diagnostic measures and the Backward masking task (pre-attention) and the Digit span distractibility test with and without distraction conditions (working memory). Results: The ADHD group performed below the healthy controls on all time points on the Digit span distractibility test. On the distractibility condition, we found a selective decline in performance from T2 to T3 for the ADHD group. Conclusion: The results highlight that ADHD individuals continue to display working memory deficits, also in adulthood, thus creating an imperative for cognitive rehabilitation techniques to help address attention difficulties. The project was (partly) financed by the Extra Foundation through The Norwegian Council for Mental Health and from the Regional Network for Psychosis Research.

Background Recovery is the ultimate goal of psychosis treatment . Basic self-disturbances (BSDs) are non-psychotic phenomena associated with clinical outcome, present in prodromal, psychotic and residual phases of psychotic disorders. Aim To investigate the relationship between BSDs and recovery seven years after first treatment in patients with psychotic disorders. Method Prospective longitudinal study of 56 patients recruited during first adequate treatment for schizophrenia (n = 35) and other psychotic disorders (n = 21) (psychotic bipolar disorder, delusional disorder, psychotic disorder NOS). At baseline and follow-up BSDs were assessed using the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) manual, while standard clinical instruments were used to ascertained diagnosis, clinical symptom severity, and functioning. Recovery was defined as absence of psychotic symptoms and regaining of functioning that persisted the last two years before follow-up. Results At follow up, 34% achieved recovery (5 (14%) with schizophrenia and 14 (67%) with other psychoses at baseline). Recovery was predicted by an absence of a schizophrenia diagnosis, low baseline level of BSDs and further reductions in BSDs from baseline to follow-up. Change in BSDs was the strongest predictor, also after adjusting for premorbid adjustment and duration of untreated psychosis, and was not confounded by diagnosis. Conclusion Low baseline levels of basic self-disturbances and further reductions over time independently predict recovery seven years later in first treated psychosis patients. This work was supported by Innlandet Hospital Trust, Norway (Grant Nos. 150281 and 150338), and Eastern Norway Health Authority (Grants no. 2006258-2011085-2014102). BN was supported by an NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship (Grant no. 1137687).

This study aimed to investigate what characterizes individuals with schizophrenia who experience more or less subjective executive dysfunction in everyday life compared to objective executive performance on neuropsychological tests. Sixty-six participants with broad schizophrenia spectrum disorders completed a comprehensive assessment of executive function. Discrepancies between performance on neuropsychological tests (objective) and an extensive self-report questionnaire (subjective) of central executive functions (inhibition, shifting and working memory) were calculated. Higher level of self-efficacy was the best predictor of experiencing fewer subjective cognitive complaints compared to objective performance, followed by higher levels of disorganized symptoms. Depressive symptoms did not predict discrepancy between subjective and objective executive function. Higher estimated IQ predicted greater subjective working memory difficulties in everyday life despite better objective performance. Results may aid clinicians in the assessment and remediation of cognitive impairment. Low self-efficacy may identify individuals who are not able to utilize their potential executive functions in daily life. Interventions aimed at fostering self-efficacy ought to be included in cognitive remediation for these individuals. Disorganized symptoms could prove useful in identifying individuals who are in need of cognitive remediation for executive dysfunction, despite that they overestimate their skills. These individuals may benefit from efforts to increase insight into cognitive dysfunction. Keywords: Cognition; Cognitive impairment; Executive function; Psychosis; Schizophrenia; Self-efficacy; Subjective assessment. © 2021 The Authors.

Objective: Our objective was to examine developmental trajectories of co-occurring psychopathology symptoms from childhood to young adulthood in individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and typically developing (TD) individuals.Method: We assessed co-occurring psychopathology symptoms in 61 individuals with ADHD, 26 with ASD, and 40 TD individuals at baseline (T1; Mage = 11.72, 64% boys), 2-year follow up (T2; Mage = 13.77), and 10-year follow up (T3; Mage = 21.35). We analyzed trajectories of internalizing behaviors, externalizing behaviors, and total problems with linear mixed models.Results: From T1 to T3, the ADHD group displayed a small decline in internalizing behaviors (d = −0.49) and large declines in externalizing behaviors (d = −0.78) and total problems (d = −0.71). The ASD group displayed large declines in internalizing behaviors (d = −0.79), externalizing behaviors (d = −0.80), and total problems (d = −0.89). From T1 to T2, the decline in externalizing behaviors and total problems were significantly smaller in the ADHD group compared with the ASD group. The ADHD and the ASD group displayed more co-occurring symptoms compared with the TD group at T3.Conclusion: Individuals with ADHD and ASD, respectively, displayed declines in co-occurring symptoms from childhood to young adulthood. Individuals with ASD displayed an earlier decline compared with individuals with ADHD. Compared with TD individuals, individuals with ADHD and ASD, respectively, continued to display elevated levels of co-occurring symptoms in young adulthood.

Highlights • Uncertain reflective function in mothers with SUD are associated with trauma during childhood and adolescence. • Impaired executive functions are significantly associated with uncertain reflective function. • Certain reflective function is not associated with executive functions or trauma., Aims Impairments in reflective functioning are known to have adverse effects on the ability to display sensitive parenting as a caregiver. Several factors are associated with impairments in reflective functioning, such as impaired executive functioning and experienced trauma. We investigated how these factors contribute to an impaired reflective functioning style, such as pathological certain or uncertain reflective functioning. Extreme scores on these two subscales reflect two kinds of impairments in reflective functioning. We assessed executive functions, reflective functioning, and trauma in 43 mothers diagnosed with substance use disorders (SUD). Methods Certain or uncertain reflective functioning were assessed using the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire 8 (RFQ-8). Executive functions and trauma were assessed by administering various questionnaires, interviews and neuropsychological tests. Results High uncertain reflective functioning was more than six times as common (odds ratio) in mothers reporting high amounts of trauma in childhood and adolescence compared with mothers reporting low amounts of trauma. Impaired executive functions were also significantly associated with high uncertain reflective functioning. Certain reflective functioning did, however, not show any significant associations. Conclusion When the SUD mothers give information about relational trauma in childhood and adolescence, it might therefore be worth investigating and addressing the potential tendency to have an uncertain reflective functioning style.

Objective: This study investigates whether performance in a verbal response task ( Color-Word Interference Test [CWIT]) and a motor response task ( Conners’ Continuous Performance Test [CCPT]) discriminates children with Tourette’s Syndrome (TS), ADHD, and typically developing children (TDC). Method: Nineteen children with TS, 79 with ADHD, and 50 with TDC participated (8-17 years). Results: Children with TS committed significantly fewer errors in the verbal response task than those with ADHD. Moreover, children with TS but without ADHD performed better than TDC. Errors in motor task and speed of response did not distinguish between groups. A cautious tendency of response correlated positively with rates of tics in children with TS. Conclusion: Children with TS were superior in inhibiting a prepotent verbal response; however, comorbidity with ADHD in those children negatively influenced performance. Results support the hypothesis that levels of inhibitory control distinguish children with TS, ADHD, and TDC.

Background: The Sense of Coherence (SOC) theory gives a possible explanation of how people can experience subjective good health despite severe illness. Basic self-disturbances (BSDs) are subtle non-psychotic disturbances that may destabilize the person's sense of self, identity, corporeality, and the overall 'grip' of the world. Aim: Our objective was to investigate associations between BSDs and SOC in patients with psychotic disorders. Design: This is a cross-sectional study of 56 patients diagnosed with psychotic disorders inside and outside the schizophrenia spectrum (35 schizophrenia, 13 bipolar, and eight other psychoses). SOC was measured using Antonovsky's 13-item SOC questionnaire, and BSDs were assessed using the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) manual. Diagnosis, symptoms, and social and occupational performance were assessed using standardized clinical instruments. Results: We found a statistically significant correlation (r = ) between high levels of BSDs and low levels of SOC (r = -0.64/p

Objective Acute Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a known trigger of both acute and chronic fatigue. The aim of this study was to investigate associations to fatigue in adolescents with EBV infection during the initial stage and six months after, as well as in healthy controls. Methods 200 adolescents (12–20 years old) with EBV infection were assessed as soon as possible after the onset of symptoms (EBVbaseline) and six months later (EBVsix months, 5 drop-outs). Also, 70 healthy controls (HC) were included. Associations between current fatigue and 148 different variables (including symptoms, functional abilities and biomarkers) were investigated separately for EBVbaseline, EBVsix months and HC using linear regression modelling. Results Fatigue was associated with symptoms of sleeping difficulties, negative emotions, and quality of life under all circumstances. Fatigue was independently associated with markers of immune response at EBVsix months and in HC, not at EBVbaseline. An association between fatigue and markers of autonomic cardiovascular control was only present at EBVsix months. Cognitive functioning shifted from a positive association to fatigue at EBVbaseline to a negative trend at EBVsix months. Markers of infection were not associated with fatigue at EBVbaseline, EBVsix months nor in HC. Conclusion Irrespective of the cause, fatigue is important for quality of life and is highly associated with negative emotions. Markers of infection and immune response had respectively none and barely any association to fatigue. Autonomic alterations and cognitive dysfunction were exclusively associated with fatigue long after infection, corroborating findings from studies of the Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.

Aim: Acute Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a trigger of prolonged fatigue. This study investigated baseline predictors of physical activity six months after an acute EBV infection. Methods: A total of 200 adolescents (12-20 years old) with acute EBV infection were assessed for 149 possible baseline predictors and followed prospectively. In this exploratory study, we performed linear regression analysis to assess possible associations between baseline predictors and steps per day at six months. Results: In the final multiple linear regression model, physical activity six months after acute EBV infection was significantly and independently predicted by baseline physical activity (steps per day), substance use (alcohol and illicit drugs) and human growth hormone (adjusted R2 = 0.20). Conclusion: Baseline physical activity, substance use and plasma growth hormone are independent predictors of physical activity six months after an acute EBV infection in adolescents, whereas markers of the infection and associated immune response do not seem to be associated with physical activity six months later. This study was funded by the Health South–East Hospital Trust, Norway.

ObjectiveTo compare cognitive function in adolescents with chronic fatigue with cognitive function in healthy controls (HC).Study designCross-sectional study.SettingPaediatric department at Oslo University Hospital, Norway.Participants120 adolescents with chronic fatigue (average age 15.4 years; range 12–18) and 39 HC (average age 15.2 years; range 12–18).MethodsThe adolescents completed a neurocognitive test battery measuring processing speed, working memory, cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, verbal learning and verbal memory, and questionnaires addressing demographic data, depression symptoms, anxiety traits, fatigue and sleep problems. Parents completed the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), which measures the everyday executive functions of children.ResultsAdolescents with chronic fatigue had impaired cognitive function compared to HC regarding processing speed (mean difference 3.3, 95% CI 1.1 to 5.5, p=0.003), working memory (−2.4, −3.7 to −1.1, pConclusionsAdolescents with chronic fatigue had impaired cognitive function of clinical relevance, measured by objective cognitive tests, in comparison to HC. Working memory and processing speed may represent core difficulties.

This study investigated the course of and association among changes in autism symptoms, depression symptoms and executive functions (EF) in children with high-functioning autism (HFA). Thirty-four children with HFA and 45 typically developing children (age 9-16) were assessed at baseline and after 2 years. Children with HFA had impaired scores on all measures at both time points. According to parent reports, depressive symptoms decreased over time, while EF improved and autism symptoms were stable. Children's reports did not reveal less depressive symptoms over time. A positive association was found only between changes in autism symptoms and changes in symptoms of depression. A possible implication is that interventions aimed at either autism symptoms or symptoms of depression may improve the other.

Mothers with a substance use disorder (SUD) are at risk for maladaptive parenting practices, and have heightened likelihood of having experienced childhood adversity themselves. In addition, parental reflective functioning (PRF), a capacity underlying sensitive caregiving, is often low in mothers with SUD. This study examines the relationship between PRF and aversive (emotional, physical, sexual abuse and neglect) and adaptive (safety and competence) experiences, in different developmental phases (early childhood, latency, and adolescence) in mothers with a SUD. A sample of 43 mothers with small children were interviewed with the Parental Developmental Interview to assess PRF, and they completed the Traumatic Antecedents Questionnaire regarding aversive and adaptive experiences. In addition, we used the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-10 to control for mental health status and a battery of neuropsychological tests to control for executive functions. Results indicated that adaptive experiences in early childhood were positively related to PRF, and that experience of emotional abuse was negatively related to PRF. When separating the group of mothers in two sub-groups based on PRF level, results showed that mothers with negative to low PRF had significantly more experiences of adversities in early childhood and latency, and significantly less adaptive experiences in early childhood, latency and adolescence, compared to mothers with moderate to high PRF. In addition, mothers with adequate to high PRF reported experiencing significantly more types of adaptive experiences, and significantly less adversities compared to mothers with negative to low PRF. Results are discussed in relation to developmental trauma, resilience, epistemic trust and mistrust. The project received financial support from The Research Council of Norway (NFR), grant number 213079/H10 and from Innlandet Hospital Trust.

Background Basic self-disturbances (BSDs) are considered core features of schizophrenia spectrum disorders, and are present in the prodromal, early psychotic and chronic phases. Considerable levels of BSDs are also present at first treatment in some patients with psychotic disorders outside the schizophrenia spectrum. There is limited knowledge about the stability of self-disturbances over time. Aim To explore the stability of BSDs in a seven-year follow-up of first treatment patients, and the association between baseline levels and changes in BSDs and diagnostic changes at follow-up. Method Longitudinal study of 56 patients (35 schizophrenia and 21 non-schizophrenia) recruited at their first treatment for a psychotic disorder. BSDs were assessed using the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE), while diagnostic categories, clinical symptom severity, and functioning were assessed with standard clinical instruments. Results The schizophrenia group had significantly lower levels of BSDs at follow-up compared to baseline. The EASE domain “Cognition and stream of consciousness” was the most stable. There were no diagnostic changes into or out of schizophrenia spectrum. Patients with schizophrenia had significantly higher levels of BSDs both at baseline and at follow up than patients with psychotic disorders outside the schizophrenia spectrum, who showed stable low levels. Conclusion We found a decrease and thus less stability in BSDs in schizophrenia than expected. This might indicate that BSDs tent to weaken over time, and that unknown individual characteristics may influence the development of BSDs. Diagnostic stability from baseline to follow-up may be due to long DUP before service entry.

Background Anomalous self-experiences (ASEs) are viewed as core features of schizophrenia. Childhood trauma (CT) has been postulated as a risk factor for developing schizophrenia. Aim The aim of this study is to investigate the relationships between CT, depression and ASEs in schizophrenia. Method ASEs were assessed in 55 patients in the early treated phases of schizophrenia using the Examination of Anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) instrument. Data on CT were collected using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, short form (CTQ-SF). This consists of 5 subscales: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and physical neglect. Assessment of depression was based on the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia (CDSS). Results We found significant associations between EASE total score and CTQ total score and between EASE total score and emotional neglect subscore in women, but not men. We also found significant associations between CDSS total score and CTQ total score and between CDSS total score and emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and physical neglect subscores in women, but not men. In men we did not find any significant associations between EASE total score, CDSS total score and any CTQ scores. Conclusion CT was significantly associated with higher levels of ASEs in women in the early treated phases of schizophrenia, but not in men. This again associated with an increase in depressive symptoms.

The present follow-up study examines the associations between cognition and parent-rated internalizing problems among adolescents with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) at baseline (T1) and self-rated internalizing problems 13 years later (T2). Twelve individuals (8 male/4 female) with EOS and 30 healthy controls (16 male/14 female) were included in the study. All were between 12 and 18 years of age at T1. Internalizing problems were measured with the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment Internalizing Scale. Cognition was examined with a neuropsychological test battery measuring auditory attention/working memory, visuomotor processing, cognitive flexibility and verbal memory. Compared to healthy controls, the EOS group had significant cognitive deficits and more internalizing problems both at T1 and T2. There was no correlation between parent-rated internalizing problems at T1 and self-rated internalizing problems at T2 in the EOS group. However, deficits in auditory attention/working memory at T1 were significantly associated with internalizing problems at T2. A focus on improving the treatment of cognitive impairments may be important in preventing the development of internalizing problems in young patients with schizophrenia. The small sample size of the study is a limitation and further research is recommended.

Aims Having a substance use disorder (SUD) is associated with impaired reflective functioning (RF) or mentalizing, implying reduced capacity to reflect on internal mental states of the self and others. This has adverse effects on parenting and the child's development. High uncertain RF style prevents an adequate RF due to a concrete, rigid way of mentalizing. High certain RF style prevents adequate RF by making individuals too certain that their view of the world is the true and only one, thereby implying no need to mentalize others' state of mind. We investigated the degree of certain RF and uncertain RF in mothers with SUD with the recently developed screening measure Reflective Functioning Questionnaire-8 (RFQ). Further, we measured the concurrent validity of the RFQ and the more commonly used Parent Development Interview (PDI) measuring a one-dimensional scale of RF. Methods We used the RFQ-8 to investigate the degree of certain RF (RFQc) and uncertain RF (RFQu) in 43 mothers with SUD. We measured the concurrent validity of the RFQ and the more commonly used PDI. Results Our sample had considerably higher uncertain RF compared to certain RF. The RFQu was significantly negatively associated with maternal RF measured with the PDI, while the RFQc was not. Conclusion High degree of uncertain RF in mothers with SUD was associated with an impaired maternal RF (PDI). Administering the RFQ-8 before treatment might be an effective way to screen for uncertain RF deficit, pinpointing what should be the focus in the mentalization-based therapy., Highlights • Mothers with SUD had higher uncertain reflective functioning score compared to certain reflective functioning score • Uncertain reflective functioning (RFQ-8) was associated with impaired reflective functioning measured with the PDI • The RFQ-8 may be used to measure uncertain RF deficit before mentalization-based therapy

Aim To investigate self-reported psychiatric and somatic symptoms and health service use at age 16 in persons who later developed a psychotic disorder compared with a control group from the same geographical areas. Method Responses concerning psychiatric or somatic health and health service use from Norwegian youth studies in a cohort of 15- and 16-year-olds in three Norwegian counties (N = 11 101, 90% response rate) were gathered. The questionnaire responses from persons later identified with a lifetime diagnosis of DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition) psychotic disorders (n = 30) (confirmed psychosis, CP) were compared with responses from the rest of the group (population control, PC) (n = 11 067). Follow-up analyses were made for cases with a confirmed onset of a psychotic disorder after the time of the survey (n = 21). Results The main significant differences between the CP and PC groups were more self-reported anxiety, depression and 'feeling in need of treatment for eating disorders' at age 16 in the CP group. The rate of self-reported eating disorder symptoms alone reached the level of statistical significance in the follow-up analyses. The CP group did not use available health services to a markedly greater extent than the control group. Conclusion We found that, in comparison with others, youths who were later identified with a psychotic disorder reported more symptoms at age 16.

The traditional standard definition and diagnostic criteria of Tourette’s syndrome (TS) are incomplete and leave out significant aspects of TS neurobiology and symptomatology, the latter often misdiagnosed as a separate “comorbid” disorder. Guided by the insights from the studies of lateralized prefrontal lesions and hemi-Parkinsonian syndromes, we consider the consequences of predominantly left versus right frontostriatal dysfunction and introduce the concept of “hemi-Tourette’s syndromes.” Whereas one (mostly left frontostriatal dysfunction) is dominated by tics promptly diagnosed as TS, the other one (mostly right frontostriatal dysfunction) is dominated by excessive exploratory behaviors that are misdiagnosed as hyperactivity and thus as “comorbid” attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. The conceptual and clinical definitions of TS should be revised and broadened to account for the features of both the left and right hemi-Tourette’s variants, as well as the combined variant.

Impairments in cognition, pain intolerance, and physical inactivity characterize adolescent chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), yet little is known about its neurobiology. The right dorsal anterior insular (dAI) connectivity of the salience network provides a motivational context to stimuli. In this study, we examined regional functional connectivity (FC) patterns of the right dAI in adolescent CFS patients and healthy participants. Eighteen adolescent patients with CFS and 18 aged-matched healthy adolescent control participants underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. The right dAI region of interest was examined in a seed-to-voxel resting-state FC analysis using SPM and CONN toolbox. Relative to healthy adolescents, CFS patients demonstrated reduced FC of the right dAI to the right posterior parietal cortex (PPC) node of the central executive network. The decreased FC of the right dAI–PPC might indicate impaired cognitive control development in adolescent CFS. Immature FC of the right dAI–PPC in patients also lacked associations with three known functional domains: cognition, pain and physical activity, which were observed in the healthy group. These results suggest a distinct biological signature of adolescent CFS and might represent a fundamental role of the dAI in motivated behavior. Norwegian Research Council, http:// www.forskningsradet.no/en (VBW, grant number 228874); South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority, https://www.helse-sorost.no/south- eastern-norway-regional-health-authority (VBW); and the University of Oslo, http://www.uio.no/ english/ (VBW). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Citation: Laura Anne Wortinger, Tor Endestad, Annika Maria D Melinder, Merete Glenne Øie, Dag Sulheim, Even Fagermoen & Vegard Bruun Wyller (2016) Emotional conflict processing in adolescent chronic fatigue syndrome: A pilot study using functional magnetic resonance imaging, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 39:4, 355-368, DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2016.1230180 Introduction: Studies of neurocognition suggest that abnormalities in cognitive control contribute to the pathophysiology of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) in adolescents, yet these abnormalities remain poorly understood at the neurobiological level. Reports indicate that adolescents with CFS are significantly impaired in conflict processing, a primary element of cognitive control. Method: In this study, we examine whether emotional conflict processing is altered on behavioral and neural levels in adolescents with CFS and a healthy comparison group. Fifteen adolescent patients with CFS and 24 healthy adolescent participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing an emotional conflict task that involved categorizing facial affect while ignoring overlaid affect labeled words. Results: Adolescent CFS patients were less able to engage the left amygdala and left midposterior insula (mpINS) in response to conflict than the healthy comparison group. An association between accuracy interference and conflict-related reactivity in the amygdala was observed in CFS patients. A relationship between response time interference and conflict-related reactivity in the mpINS was also reported. Neural responses in the amygdala and mpINS were specific to fatigue severity. Conclusions: These data demonstrate that adolescent CFS patients displayed deficits in emotional conflict processing. Our results suggest abnormalities in affective and cognitive functioning of the salience network, which might underlie the pathophysiology of adolescent CFS. This study is part of the NorCAPITAL-project (The Norwegian Study of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome in Adolescents: Pathophysiology and Intervention Trial) (Clinical Trials ID: NCT01040429). It was conducted at the Department of Pediatrics, Oslo University Hospital, Norway, which is a national referral center for young CFS patients. The current study is based on cross-sectional data collected during the first clinical in-hospital day of NorCAPITAL, from March 2010 to May 2012. All participants received a gift-card worth NOK 200. This work was supported by the Norwegian Research Council (VBW, grant number 228874); 498 Health South–East Hospital Trust (VBW); and the University of Oslo (VBW).

Background: Anomalous self-experiences (ASEs) aggregate in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, but the relationship between ASEs, and depression has been studied to a limited extent. Lower self-esteem has been shown to be associated with depression in early psychosis. Our hypothesis is that ASEs in early phases of schizophrenia are linked to lower levels of self-esteem, which in turn is associated with depression. Aim: The aim is to examine the relationship between ASEs, self-esteem and depression in first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders.Method: ASEs were assessed in 55 patients with first-episode schizophrenia by means of the Examination of anomalous Self-Experience (EASE) instrument. Assessment of depression was based on the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia (CDSS). Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Symptom severity was assessed using the Structured Clinical Interview for the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (SCI-PANSS). Substance misuse was measured with the Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT), and alcohol use was measured with the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT). Data on childhood adjustment were collected using the Premorbid Adjustment Scale (PAS). Data on childhood trauma were collected using the Norwegian version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, short form (CTQ-SF). Results: Analyses detected a significant association between current depression and ASEs as measured by the EASE in women, but not in men. The effect of ASEs on depression appeared to be mediated by self-esteem. No other characteristics associated with depression influenced the relationship between depression, self-esteem and ASEs. Conclusion: Evaluating ASEs can assist clinicians in understanding patients’ experience of self-esteem and depressive symptoms. The complex interaction between ASEs, self-esteem, depression and suicidality could be a clinical target for the prevention of suicidality in this patient group.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to investigate the association between changes in ADHD symptoms, executive functions (EFs), and depression symptoms in girls and boys with ADHD over a 2-year period. METHOD: Thirty-six girls and 39 boys with ADHD, 18 typically developing (TD) girls and 29 TD boys (ages 9-16) were included. Assessments of EFs, ADHD symptoms, and self- and parent-report of depression symptoms were carried out. RESULTS: For girls, a reduction of inattention symptoms was associated with a decline in parent-rated depression symptoms. A reduction in hyperactivity/impulsivity was associated with a reduction in self-rated depression symptoms in boys, and an increase in girls. A reduction in inattention symptoms was associated with a modest increase in self-rated depression symptoms in both boys and girls. CONCLUSION: Gathering information from both the parents and the child with ADHD is important in determining how gender may be influencing symptom profiles.© The Author(s) 2016. Language: en

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate birth rates and use of hormonal contraception in different age groups among women with epilepsy (WWE) in comparison to women without epilepsy. Materials and Methods Demographic data and medical information on more than 25,000 pregnant women (40,000 births), representing 95% of all pregnancies in Oppland County, Norway, were registered in the Oppland Perinatal Database in the period 1989–2011. Data were analyzed with respect to epilepsy diagnoses, and 176 women with a validated epilepsy diagnosis (303 pregnancies) were identified. Age‐specific birth rates in these women were estimated and compared with age‐specific birth rates in women without epilepsy in the same county. Results In WWE over 25 years of age, birth rates were significantly lower than in those of the same age group without epilepsy. In women below 20 years of age, birth rates were similar in those with and without epilepsy. The use of hormonal contraceptives prior to pregnancy was lower among WWE under 25 years than in the corresponding age group without epilepsy. Conclusions Health professionals who counsel WWE who are of fertile age should be aware of the strongly reduced birth rates in WWE over 25 years of age, and the lower rates of use of contraceptives among young WWE.

Converging evidence indicates that self-disorders (SDs) selectively aggregate in schizophrenia spectrum conditions. The aim of this study was to test the discriminatory power of SDs with respect to schizophrenia and nonschizophrenia spectrum psychosis at first treatment contact. SDs were assessed in 91 patients referred for first treatment through the Examination of Anomalous Self-experience (EASE) instrument. Diagnoses, symptoms severity, and function were assessed using the Structural Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV, Structured Clinical Interview for the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia, Young Mania Rating Scale, and Global Assessment of Functioning-Split Version. Most patients found it highly relevant to talk about SDs. EASE total score critically discriminated between schizophrenia, bipolar psychosis, and other psychoses. The EASE total score was the only clinical measure that showed a significant and robust association with the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Systematic exploration of anomalous self-experiences could improve differential diagnosis in first-treatment patients.

Objective: The relation between neurocognitive impairments and functional outcome has been documented in both early onset schizophrenia (EOS) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but less is known about the long-term relation between these factors. The present study investigates how neurocognition at baseline is related to measures of functional outcome at 13-year follow-up in subjects with EOS and ADHD. Method: Subjects with EOS (n = 15), ADHD (n = 19), and healthy controls (n = 30) were followed up 13 years after initial assessment. All subjects were between 12 and 18 years of age at baseline and between 24 and 30 at follow-up. They were retested at T2 with the same comprehensive neurocognitive test battery as used at T1, and reassessed with various symptom and behavior ratings and functional outcome measures. Results: Both groups were characterized by reduced functional outcome at follow-up, although of different magnitude and type, compared with healthy controls. In the EOS group, neurocognitive baseline measures were associated with social functioning at follow-up (η 2 between .26 and .41), while for the ADHD group, no significant predictions were found. Conclusions: Adolescents with EOS and ADHD are characterized by poor functional outcome compared with healthy controls when reassessed as young adults. Executive function, memory and attention were related to social and community functioning in EOS. For ADHD no significant predictions were found although functional outcome was poor. For both groups treatment should focus on training of social skills and activities of daily living to enhance the long-term functional outcome. For EOS cognitive remediation should also be considered.

The aim of the present study is to examine attentional costs (inhibition) in covert visual attention in a group of acutely ill adolescents with schizophrenia without long histories of neuroleptic treatment. Variations in reaction time were analyzed for possible age and sex differences. Adolescents with schizophrenia (n = 19) were compared to a group of ADHD subjects (n = 20) and a group of normally functioning adolescents (n = 30) on a measure of covert visual attention. The results support a hypothesis of abnormally rapid disengagement (reduced costs) in male adolescents with schizophrenia. Such an abnormality has also been found in adults with chronic schizophrenia. Whether this holds true for both sexes of adolescents with schizophrenia or is restricted to male subjects cannot be answered with certainty due to the small number of females with schizophrenia in our sample. Our findings indicate, however, that there are some general sex differences and some specific sex differences related to covert visual attention in adolescents with schizophrenia.

Vigilance deficits have been found in both schizophrenic and ADHD subjects. The two patient groups have never been directly compared on any vigilance measure, however. In the present study 20 early-onset schizophrenics were compared to 20 ADHD adolescents on a Degraded Stimulus Continuous Performance Test (DS-CPT). A comparison group of 30 normal adolescents was also included. Results showed no significant differences between the three groups on any of the DS-CPT measures. Different hypotheses are put forth to explain the findings, among them that the task may be insensitive to identifying sustained attention deficits in adolescent populations.

In contrast to the findings of progressive structural brain changes in adolescence, longitudinal studies of patients with early onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders (EOS) indicate that neurocognitive deficits are relatively stable over the first years. The aim of this study is to assess neurocognitive functions longitudinally in patients with EOS compared to healthy controls (HC) using the MATRICS Cognitive Consensus Battery (MCCB). Methods Twenty patients with EOS and 41 HC were tested with the MCCB at baseline (T1) and after one (T2) and two years (T3). The mean age for the EOS group was 15.6 (SD = 1.8) years, while the mean duration of illness was 1.7 (SD = 1.4) years at T1. Results The EOS group's neurocognitive performances indicate a stable deficit on most measures. Both the EOS and HC groups showed improved neurocognitive functioning over time on all measures except for the verbal learning domain. There was an interaction between the EOS and HC groups' performance over time on the Trail Making Test A (TMA), a subtest on the processing speed domain. Conclusion The longitudinal neurocognitive performances measured by the MCCB confirm previous findings of stable deficits in patients with EOS. It is premature to conclude whether the increases in neurocognitive performance reflect developmental processes in adolescence or may be explained by learning effects, or both. As opposed to the other tests in this domain, a stagnation in processing speed as measured by the TMA suggests that the TMA is a particularly sensitive measure of neurodevelopmental deviance in EOS.

The aim of the study was to compare executive processes with pronounced (hot) and less pronounced (cold) emotional salience in medication naive children and adolescents with ADHD-combined (ADHD-C) and ADHD-inattentive (ADHD-I) subtypes. Thirty-six subjects with ADHD-C, 44 with ADHD-I, and 50 healthy controls between 8 and 17 years were assessed with laboratory tests and inventory-based scales assessing hot and cold executive functions (EF) (controlled attention, working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, hot decision making) and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). The ADHD-C group displayed significantly more impairment compared to the ADHD-I group on the cold BRIEF Inhibition and Monitor scales. There were no significant differences between ADHD subtypes on cold and hot laboratory tests. The hot decision-making task did not correlate with the other cold or hot EF measures. Overall, few EF measures were shown to differentiate between ADHD subtypes nor were there any relationships between the hot decision-making task and the other EF measures, which seems to indicate separate developmental trajectories.

Symptoms similar to those found in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often occur in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). The objective of the current study was to compare verbal working memory, acquisition and delayed recall in children with High-Functioning Autism (HFA) to children with ADHD and typically developing children (TDC). Thirty-eight children with HFA, 79 with ADHD and 50 TDC (age 8-17) were assessed with a letter/number sequencing task and a verbal list-learning task. To investigate the possible influence of attention problems in children with HFA, we divided the HFA group into children with (HFA+) or without (HFA-) "attention problems" according to the Child Behaviour Checklist 6-18. The children with HFA+ displayed significant impairment compared to TDC on all three neurocognitive measures, while the children with HFA- were significantly impaired compared to TDC only on the working memory and acquisition measures. In addition, the HFA+ group scored significantly below the HFA- group and the ADHD group on the verbal working memory and delayed recall measures. The results support the proposition that children with HFA+, HFA-, and ADHD differ not only on a clinical level but also on a neurocognitive level which may have implications for treatment.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder-combined subtype (ADHD-C) and predominantly inattentive subtype (ADHD-PI) to direct their attention and to exert cognitive control in a forced attention dichotic listening (DL) task. Twenty-nine, medication-naive participants with ADHD-C, 42 with ADHD-PI, and 40 matched healthy controls (HC) between 9 and 16 years were assessed. In the DL task, two different auditory stimuli (syllables) are presented simultaneously, one in each ear. The participants are asked to report the syllable they hear on each trial with no instruction on focus of attention or to explicitly focus attention and to report either the right- or left-ear syllable. The DL procedure is presumed to reflect different cognitive processes: perception (nonforced condition/NF), attention (forced-right condition/FR), and cognitive control (forced-left condition/FL). As expected, all three groups had normal perception and attention. The children and adolescents with ADHD-PI showed a significant right-ear advantage also during the FL condition, while the children and adolescents in the ADHD-C group showed a no-ear advantage and the HC showed a significant left-ear advantage in the FL condition. This suggests that the ADHD subtypes differ in degree of cognitive control impairment. Our results may have implications for further conceptualization, diagnostics, and treatment of ADHD subtypes.

There are relatively few studies on learning and delayed memory with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The objective of the present study was to examine acquisition, free delayed memory, and recognition skills in medication naive children and adolescents aged 8–16 years with ADHD combined subtype (36 participants) and inattentive subtype (45) compared to 50 healthy controls (HC) aged 8–17 years. Learning and delayed memory were assessed with the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test–Revised and the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test–Revised, which have compatible methods of administration, test format, and score ranges. The results showed that children with both ADHD subtypes scored significantly below HC in acquisition, free delayed memory, and recognition, even when controlling for the effect of IQ. Comparing phases in the learning process showed an initial deficit in acquisition but no increase in effect size in subsequent testing of free delayed memory or recognition. The study indicates that learning and delayed memory processes are impaired in both combined and inattentive subtypes of ADHD and that the deficits are not merely an artifact of IQ. The study indicates that emphasis must be put on the acquisition phase and how students with ADHD organize and encode new information.

Signs of social dysfunction are present early in the course of psychotic disorders. There is a lack of knowledge about how premorbid function, illness history, psychotic symptoms and neurocognitive characteristics are related to social function in patients with first episode psychosis (FEP). The relationship between these factors could provide important information about the psychopathology underlying social dysfunction and have implications for future prevention and treatment efforts. Our objective is to identify early predictors of social functioning in patients with FEP. We examined 166 patients and 166 age- and gender-matched healthy controls (HC). We used a validated and comprehensive measure of social functioning (the Social Functioning Scale), a comprehensive neurocognitive test battery, in addition to measures of psychotic symptoms, duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) and premorbid adjustment (the Premorbid Adjustment Scale). Lower childhood level of social adjustment and lower psychomotor speed had the strongest influence across measures of social functioning while symptoms and DUP had a weaker influence. The main result of the current study is that premorbid social adjustment and psychomotor speed had the strongest association with measures of social functioning in patients with FEP.

Objective Dichotic listening (DL) performance in schizophrenia, reflecting hemispheric asymmetry and the functional integrity of the left temporal lobe, can vary with clinical characteristics. Previous studies have not taken the co-linearity of clinical variables into account. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the roles of positive symptoms and duration of illness in DL through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), thus allowing for complex relationships between the variables. Method We pooled patients from four previous DL studies to create a heterogeneous group of 129 schizophrenic patients, all tested with a consonant-vowel syllables DL procedure that included attentional instructions. Results A model where positive symptoms predicted a laterality component and duration of illness predicted an attention component in DL was confirmed. Conclusion Positive symptoms predicted reduced functional laterality, suggesting involvement of left temporal lobe language processing. Duration of illness predicted impaired attention modulation, possibly reflecting the involvement of frontotemporal networks.

In contrast to studies of cognitive functioning in adults with schizophrenia, there has been a relative paucity of studies assessing adolescents with schizophrenia. We investigated cognitive functioning in 22 adolescents with schizophrenia spectrum disorders compared with 30 healthy adolescents. The patient group demonstrated impaired performance on all of the functions investigated except sustained attention. Against the background of this broad impairment, executive function and psychomotor speed were the most impaired, sustained attention was spared, while preattentional processing, early visual information processing, visual long-term memory, auditory short-term memory and working memory emerged as relative deficits. The study shows that adolescents with schizophrenia spectrum disorders demonstrate a similar pattern of cognitive functioning to adults in all areas, except sustained attention.

Previous research on memory and schizophrenia has relied on a limited number of global memory measures instead of a comprehensive assessment of various memory components. In addition, little effort has been directed at examining memory functioning in patients with early-onset schizophrenia. Published research often lacks a relevant neuropsychiatric comparison group to control for attention difficulties. Patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) were included in the present study for this purpose. To our knowledge, a direct comparison of the two patient groups on memory functions has never been made. In the present study, both adolescents with schizophrenia and adolescents with ADHD were compared on a comprehensive memory test battery. Nineteen adolescents with schizophrenia were compared to 20 ADHD adolescents and 30 normally functioning adolescents on measures of working memory and long-term episodic memory, including tests of verbal and visual memory, free recall and recognition memory. The performance of the adolescents with schizophrenia was impaired as compared to the normal group on most of the memory measures. They performed significantly more poorly than the adolescents with ADHD on the visual memory tests. The ADHD group scored more impaired than the schizophrenia group on working memory tests with focus on distractibility. The findings suggest a general memory deficit among adolescents with schizophrenia related to both verbal and visual material. Impairment on the measures of visual memory is specific to schizophrenia and does not characterise the ADHD subjects.