Search

The article discusses avalanche occurrence in the Slovenian Alps (SE Alps) in the context of climate change. It analyses the relationship between the North Atlantic Oscillation and maximum snow depth over the last two centuries, and the relationships between maximum snow depth and avalanches over the last three decades. We argue that higher temperatures lead to precipitation in the form of rain at higher elevations even in winter, so that major wet avalanches occur already in winter rather than in early spring, as was more common in the past. A case study of extreme avalanches in January 2021 is presented to support the hypothesis.

Boundary stones are physical markers that identify land borders and above all changes thereto. They are often placed in particularly visible places and inscribed with various kinds of relevant information. They are used for marking borders between countries or between various levels of administrative units within countries as well as for delimiting private landholdings. In the territory of the former Habsburg Monarchy, one can locate many boundary stones that, for example, marked the boundaries of seigniorial, dominical, and church estates as well as administrative and provincial borders. This contribution presents the latter, that is, boundary stones that marked the “Slovenian” section of the border which separated the Duchy of Styria and the Kingdom of Hungary until the end of the First World War, with a particular focus on the wider area of the Municipality of Ljutomer. Although these boundary stones no longer serve their original purpose, in some areas they still coincide with municipal and cadastral boundaries.

The Soča River is an important water source, and its water potential was used early for transport and energy production, in the last century especially for electricity. For this reason, the Soča Valley is (was) a permanent »testing ground« for large hydropower plans. Several hydropower plants were built in its middle and lower reaches, generating over 1,100 GWh of electricity per year, and the potential of the Soča River is estimated at 1,800 GWh. In the period from the Second World War until Slovenia’s independence, ambitious plans for the construction of hydropower plants appeared every decade. The chronology of events and the changing arguments »for« and »against« construction are presented, and the development of the discussions is also placed in the context of the development of the idea of nature conservation and participation.

Subglacial carbonate deposits have been exposed on the lee sides of small protuberances on a bare polished and striated limestone bedrock surface in the immediate vicinity of the disappearing small glaciers in the south-eastern Alps (N Slovenia and NE Italy). The uranium-thorium dating of these carbonates indicates that they were deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and Younger Dryas (YD). The small glaciers in the Slovenian Alps (i.e., the Triglav and Skuta glaciers) are generally considered relicts of the Little Ice Age that were not continuously present due to the warm Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO). If these glaciers had completely melted during the HCO, the the subglacial carbonates of the LGM and YD would have been exposed to frost weathering and would have had little chance of being preserved to the present day. While it has been postulated that subglacial carbonates are not very resistant to such weathering, no direct data have been available to date. Therefore, the objective of our study was to determine the rate of freeze-thaw weathering of subglacial carbonate deposits. Freeze-thaw analysis was performed in a controlled freeze-thaw chamber under dry and wet conditions. Preliminary results after 56 freeze-thaw cycles indicate an average mass loss of 2.13%. According to the high-altitude meteorological station adjacent to the Triglav Glacier, there is an average of 19 freeze and thaw cycles per year when there is no snow cover, indicating an average mass loss of 0.73% per year and a total mass loss in about 2000 years. These laboratory results suggest that the subglacial carbonates would likely have weathered in the absence of glaciers during the HCO and thus can be considered indicative of the recently exposed ice- or glacier-free surface for the first time since their deposition.

Various ice bodies are an important source of paleoenvironmental data, and their study improves the understanding of present and future environmental conditions. Their changes are an important indicator of climate change. This special issue of Acta geographica Slovenica draws attention to the changing and disappearing cryosphere across the globe, with an emphasis on the southeastern Alps, and the necessity to conduct research in this field before the ice disappears forever. This paper briefly summarizes the current body of knowledge on glaciers, permafrost, cave ice, lake and river ice, and snow in the southeastern Alps, and it presents the contribution of Acta geographica Slovenica to this research and the main highlights of all five papers included in this special issue.

The Skuta Glacier in the Kamnik–Savinja Alps (in northern Slovenia) is one of the two remaining glaciers in Slovenia. It is located in a cirque oriented toward the northwest, which shields it from sunlight for most of the year. The glacier lies at an average elevation of 2070m. In recent years, its average area has measured around 1.5 hectares. Monitoring of the glacier has been performed since 1946. In 1962, regular photographing of the glacier with various cameras started from various non-fixed standpoints. Using the single image interactive orientation acquisition method, in which a single photograph is compared with the projection of a modern digital terrain model, seventeen photographs covering the period from 1970 to 2015 were used to acquire the 3D-perimeters of the glacier. The data shows that the elevation of glacier’s upper edge decreased by approximately 40m in the last half-century. Changes in the glacier’s area and average upper edge elevation were compared with average annual temperature and maximum seasonal snow cover depth.

The Triglav Glacier in the Julian Alps and the Skuta Glacier in the Kamnik-Savinja Alps are among the south-easternmost glaciers in the Alps. Historical data show that ice masses are undergoing mass loss as the overall climate warms. Glacier ice and cave ice contain a wealth of paleoclimatic information, and rapid sampling is needed if any such information is to be saved before the ice is completely melted. We present the first comprehensive geochemical and water isotope data from glacier ice, meltwater, spring water, and cave ice in the Mount Triglav area and glacier ice from the Skuta Glacier. The samples primarily reflect the initial precipitation signal that has been greatly modified by the input of local CaCO3-rich dust with lesser amounts of marine aerosol and vegetation debris.

Various geodetic and lidar measurements performed on the Triglav Glacier (Julian Alps, Slovenia) make it possible to study not only the extent of the glacier but also changes in its thickness and volume. These measurements also make it possible to calculate the geodetic mass balance of the glacier. Thickness and volume changes were calculated using glacier area measurements from 1952, 1975, and 1992, and annually between 1999 and 2016. The mean thickness decreased from 39.2m in 1952 to 2.45m in 2012. The maximum thickness decreased from 48.3 m in 1952 to 5.2 m in 2007. The mean specific mass balance was calculated for the area of 1 hectare that the glacier covered in 2016. From 1952 to 2016, the annual specific mass balance was −0.45m w.e.a−1.

The accuracy and uncertainty of paleoclimate interpretations of geochemical and isotopic proxies from stalagmites depend critically on how accurately isotopic signals are transmitted through the vadose zone of the aquifer and how the elemental composition of the groundwater feeding the stalagmite changes as it passes through the aquifer.Results of the first year (2021) of drip-water monitoring at 15 drip sites in the Jama v Dovčku Cave in SE Slovenia are presented. Cumulative monthly samples were analysed for δ18O of water, δ13C of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), elemental composition of drip-water and concentration and δ13C of CO2 in the cave atmosphere. While the seasonal variability of δ18O of precipitation in 2021 at the nearest meteorological station exceeded 10 ‰ (from –15.42 ‰ in January to –5.28 in June), the intra-annual variability of δ18O of drip-water was reduced to 0.18–1.28 ‰ and showed no correlation with the thickness of the roof, which varied between >1 and 49 m. A discernible annual cyclicity was observed at some drip sites, with the highest δ18O values determined in winter and the lowest in late summer. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) δ13C values exhibited a wide range (between –15.5 and –5.0 ‰), and drip sites could be divided into two groups: some drip sites exhibited large seasonal variability (up to 9.9 %) with low values in the warmer season, while the others varied within 2 concentration in the cave atmosphere was significantly higher from May to October, about 4000 to 8000 ppm, while it fluctuated between 700 and 1500 ppm in the colder part of the year. The δ13C values of CO2 varied between –23.8 and –15.2 ‰ and decreased exponentially with CO2 concentration. Similar to CO2, the δ13C values of DIC also decreased exponentially with increasing DIC concentration. The δ13C value of “added” CO2 in the atmosphere obtained from the δ13C x (C/C0-1) vs. (C/C0-1) plot (Sayles &% Curry, 1988) was –23.4 ± 2.6 ‰, which is almost identical to the CO2 added to the drip-water estimated from DIC concentration and δ13C values of DIC (–23.9 ± 3.4 ‰, considering the isotopic fractionation factor between CO2(g) and HCO3- from Mook et al. 1974). Chemical analysis showed that drip sites with a large seasonality of δ13C values have significantly lower saturation indices with respect to calcite in the warmer part of the year and that earlier calcite precipitation is most likely to occur at drip sites with lower drip rates. Reference:Mook et al., 1974, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 22,169–186.Sayles & Curry, 1988, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52, 2963–2978. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We acknowledge the financial support of Slovenian Research Agency (J1-2478).

The soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined in soils of enclosed karst depressions (dolines) (NW Dinaric Mts.) to define their potential for organic carbon sequestration. SOC was measured in the forest, succession (scrubland), and grassland plots at the bottom of dolines at four depths (0–40 cm) and for 40 cm soil layer SOC stock was calculated. We demonstrated that the prevailing fine soil fractions, the C/N ratio and soil thickness play a positive role in the storage capacity of SOC in dolines regardless land use type. Grasslands have the lowest SOC storage capacity (106 t/ha/40 cm), while the highest SOC storage capacity is in succession plots (130 t/ha/40 cm). The last are covered by shrub communities dominated by Prunus spinosa, forming dense communities, and are typical of abandoned croplands or meadows that have been impacted by high levels of nutrients during cultivation phase. At this stage, there is no additional nutrient input in studied plots, which lowers the nutrient content and increases the C/N ratio. C/N ratio is the highest in the forest, where SOC stock capacity is 116 t/ha/40 cm. Given the trend towards the abandonment of agricultural land at Kras Plateau (SW Slovenia), we can expect more overgrowth of dolines, and thus an increase in carbon stocks and stabilization of organic carbon in forest soils. In contrary, we noticed the alarming decrease in grasslands and increase in urban land. The SOC storage in 2020 was for 12,538 t/ha/40 cm lower than in 2002. Although grasslands showed the lowest SOC storage, their contribution to total SOC storage in dolines is very important. Since there is a lack of studies on carbon stocks in doline soils, our research is of great importance and a novelty and gives an important background for further research on SOC stock in karst landscapes worldwide. Bibliografija: str. 9-10. Abstract.

A boundary stone, boundary marker, border marker or border stone is a robust physical marker that identifies a land boundary, especially a change in the direction of a boundary. Usually, it is a stone. Natural stone was used for boundary stones, which were later made of concrete or other materials. They were usually placed in a particularly visible spot. Many boundary stones feature information, such as an abbreviation identifying the holder of the border and a date. Boundary stones separating countries usually include abbreviations of countries they are separating, as well as the date when the border was delineated. We focused on boundary stones in the territory of modern-day Slovenia, which in the Habsburg Monarchy, before World War I, divided the Duchy of Styria and the Kingdom of Hungary and, in the interwar period, the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. These boundary stones no longer serve their original purpose; however, as markers of the past, they are historical witnesses. They represent an administrative legacy that is today mostly hidden in the cognitive perception of these boundaries.

Članek prinaša pregled glavnih tipov, temeljnih lastnosti in učinkov negradbenih protipoplavnih ukrepov. Ugotavljajmo, da uporaba negradbenih ukrepov izhaja iz geografskih raziskav in da so v zadnjih desetletjih vse pomembnejši tudi v drugih strokah, ki se ukvarjajo s poplavami. Izkazalo se je namreč, da samo gradbeni protipoplavni ukrepi ne zadoščajo več za tako kompleksno sodobno družbo, ki jo sicer zaznamujejo tehnizacija, individualizacija in informacijske tehnologije, po drugi strani pa pogrešamo poznavanje nevarnih naravnih procesov, kot so poplave. Negradbeni ukrepi obsegajo širok spekter dejavnosti, ki segajo vse od ukrepov upravljanja porečij in coniranja oziroma vzpostavitve evidenc poplavne ogroženosti, do monitoringa poplav in opozarjanja pred njimi ter ozaveščanja in nenazadnje tudi gospodarskih dejavnosti, kot je zavarovalništvo. Izziv ostaja, kako voditi in povezati negradbene ukrepe, da bi dolgoročno prispevali k poplavni varnosti – kot najbolj učinkovita se je izkazala kombinacija različnih vrst ukrepov, kjer nekateri vplivajo dolgoročno, drugi pa prispevajo kratkoročno. The article provides an overview of the main types, basic properties and effects of non-structural flood protection measures. The authors note that the use of non-structural measures stems from geographical research and that they have become increasingly important in other flood-dealing disciplines in recent decades. It turned out that structural flood protection measures alone are no longer enough for a complex modern society, which is characterized by technicalization, individualization and information technology, but on the other hand we lack knowledge of natural hazards, such as floods. Non-structural measures cover a wide range of activities, ranging from river basin management and zoning measures or the establishment of flood risk records to flood monitoring and warning, as well as awareness-raising and, last but not least, economic activities such as insurance. The challenge remains how to manage and integrate non-structural measures to contribute to flood safety in the long term – a combination of different types of measures has proven to be most effective, with some having long-term effects and others contribute to short-term effects.

Acta geographica Slovenica je znanstvena revija za vsa področja geografije in sorodnih ved. Izdaja jo Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, zalaga Založba ZRC in sozalaga Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti. Med letoma 1952 in 1976 je revija izhajala občasno, nato enkrat letno, od leta 2003 dvakrat letno, od leta 2019 pa izhaja trikrat letno. Od leta 1995 revija izhaja tudi na spletu. Od leta 1981 je revija vključena v Scopus, od leta 2003 pa v Web of Science. Je med najbolj citiranimi slovenskimi znanstvenimi revijami v tujini. Leta 2020 je izšel njen šestdeseti letnik in tej obletnici je posvečen ta prispevek. // Acta geographica Slovenica is a scientific journal for papers covering all fields of geography and related disciplines. It is issued by the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute, published by Založba ZRC, and co-published by the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts. From 1952 to 1976, the journal was published periodically, then once a year, twice a year from 2003, and three times a year since 2019. The online version of the journal has been available since 1995. The journal has been included in Scopus since 1981 and in Web of Science since 2003. It is one of the Slovenian scholarly journals most cited abroad. The 60th volume was published in 2020 and this article is dedicated to the milestone anniversary.

The concept of connectivity, especially hydrological connectivity, is used in Earth and environmental sciences as a term and as a conceptual framework for addressing spatial and temporal variability in runoff and sediment transport. Hydrological connectivity can be defined as the transfer of water and sediment through a fluvial system or a dynamic linkage between surface and subsurface waters flowing through a landscape. Five forms of hydrological connectivity may be distinguished: stream-hillslope connectivity, river-floodplain connectivity, stream-lake connectivity, longitudinal or upstream-downstream connectivity, and stream-groundwater connectivity. All of them are interconnected. Hydrological connections are not only unidirectional but cover multiple dimensions and operate across different temporal scales. As a framework, connectivity is useful for understanding spatial variations in runoff. // Pojem povezljivosti, zlasti hidrološke povezljivosti, se v vedah o Zemlji in okolju uporablja kot strokovni izraz in kot konceptualni okvir za obravnavo prostorske ter časovne spremenljivosti v pretoku vode in prenosu gradiva. Hidrološko povezljivost lahko opredelimo kot prenašanje vode in sedimentov skozi rečni sistem ali kot dinamično povezavo med nadzemnimi in podzemnimi vodami, ki tečejo skozi pokrajino. Razlikujemo lahko pet oblik hidrološke povezljivosti: povezljivost med vodotokom in pobočjem, povezljivost med vodotokom in njegovim poplavnim območjem, povezljivost med vodotokom in jezerom, vzdolžno povezljivost med vodotokovim povirnim in izlivnim delom ter povezljivost med vodotokom in podzemno vodo. Vse so med sabo povezane. Vodne povezave niso samo enosmerne, ampak imajo več razsežnosti glede na prostor in čas. Kot okvir je povezljivost koristna za razumevanje prostorskih razlik pri odtoku.

V knjigi je stirinajst poglavij s podrocja naravnih nesrec. V poglavjih so opisana raziskovalna spoznanja ter primeri uporabe sodobnih tehnologij v primeru naravnih nesrec, s poudarkom na domacih odzivih na globalne izzive. Knjiga vsebuje razlicne teme, kot so na primer potresi, suse, vrocinski valovi, poplave, snežni plazovi ter odzivanje in komuniciranje v primeru naravnih nesrec.

The book presents a wealth of historical cartographic representations of Slovenian territory. It is divided into two main parts. The first or the text part briefly presents the history of European cartography up to the end of the nineteenth century, maps of the Slovenian territory up to the early twentieth century and maps as cultural heritage. In the second or cartographic part, in turn, features important historical maps of the Slovenian territory presented in chronological order. The format of the book enables an excellent presentation of the presented maps. The maps presented date from the mid-sixteenth century, when the first independent maps of present-day Slovenia were produced, to the beginning of the twentieth century, when cartography developed into a modern discipline. The aim of this book is to present the extensive Slovenian cartographic heritage. Co-published by Narodna in unverzitetna knjižnica (NUK)

Monuments to rulers are, like national holidays, celebrations of the ruling family‘s birthdays, school observances, and various printed, mass-distributed propaganda material, one of the building blocks of power consolidation of the ruling family, and a way of legitimization. This paper presents this phenomenon via public sculptural monuments that were erected to members of the Karađorđevic dynasty in the present-day Slovenian territory during the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenians, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A review of the material reveals that such monuments were erected only to King Peter I and his son Alexander I, who embodied the military power of the common state on one hand, and the guarantee of a just rule in an age of peace on the other. Commemorative monuments were usually designed relatively modestly, in the form of busts on pedestals, with some extravagant exceptions such as an obelisk, full-figure statue, and an equestrian statue. The locations were carefully selected, usually in town centers or symbolically significant places - primarily by the western and northern border. With the exception of a few fragments, none of the described monuments survived.

The retreat of ice shelves and glaciers over the last century provides unequivocal evidence of recent global warming. Glacierets (miniature glaciers) are an important component that highlights the global retreat of glaciers, but knowledge of their behaviour prior to the Little Ice Age is lacking. Here, we present subglacial carbonate deposits from a recently exposed surface previously occupied by the disappearing Triglav Glacier (southeastern European Alps) that may elucidate the glacier’s existence throughout the entire Holocene since their maximum uranium-thorium (U-Th) ages suggest their possible preservation since the Last Glacial Maximum and Younger Dryas. These thin deposits, formed by regelation, are easily eroded if exposed during previous Holocene climatic optima. The age data indicate the glacier’s present unprecedented level of retreat since the Last Glacial Maximum, and the potential of subglacial carbonates as additional proxies to highlight the extraordinary nature of the current global climatic changes.

In the topography of war landscapes the remains of war are found in the form of trenches, bombing craters and remnants of war infrastructure. Today war landscapes are “overlaid” by post-war “layers” of cultural landscapes. It requires non-invasive remote-sensing methods, e.g. time series of aerial photographs and high-resolution terrain models (LiDAR digital terrain model) to recognize these landscapes. In the study area on Kras Plateau (SW Slovenia) over one hundred kilometres of World War I trenches are preserved in the NW part of the plateau (app. 72 km2) in the present-day topography and represent tangible war geoheritage. But much of these geoheritage was also lost in post-war periods, e.g. near the village of Vrtojba (SW Slovenia) where in 1917 over 12 km of World War I trenches existed, but a century later no traces of war are visible in the present-day topography. Almost two hundred World War I bomb craters also existed around the village that are also not existent in the topography any more. Many anthropo-geomorphological traces of war are thus preserved only virtually and present intangible war geoheritage.

In the second half of the 19th century, Slovenian mountains became increasingly popular. By strengthening the bourgeoisie and the industrial society, more and more people had time (“leisure time”) to visit the mountains. This was, however, also the time after the Spring of Nations (1848), when slovenianism is affirmed and national aspirations become realized. By mountaineering, national aspirations were moved from towns to high mountains and were particularly evident in the form of a competition to conquer the summits, build trails and huts. Mountaineering became a tool for a symbolical conquest of mountains. One could say that it was a race of “marking” the mountains. The central area of this competition were the Julian Alps, particularly their central part, the Triglav mountain range. From the last quarter of the 19th century, the “marking” champions were the main two German organizations (present in Slovenian territory through their branches since 1874), the German-Austrian Alpine Society (DÖAV), and the Austrian Tourist Club (ÖTC). Together they developed a network of shelters and mountain trails that were marked exclusively with German inscriptions (signboards, hut names, etc.). Towards the end of the 19th century (1893), the Slovenes founded their own Slovene Mountaineering Society (SPD) as well, resisting the German branding. By using Slovenian names, constructing trails and employing a different way of marking them, and building Slovenian huts, they wanted to prevent the Germans from conquering the mountains they deemed Slovene. A race in constructing the alpine infrastructure started, which eventually turned into arguments. The latter included destruction of property, as well as physical confrontations, which were later called “the battle for the mountains”. The greatest success of the Slovenian side was the purchase of the Triglav summit (1895), where the priest Jakob Aljaž built a tower - the highest Slovenian marking.

This chapter explores the military landscape of the Slovenian–Italian border region and its connections with the First World War and memorialization of the interwar years. In the study region, which encompasses the western part of present-day Slovenia, fighting took place on the Soca/Isonzo Front, 1915–1917. The front was the scene of one of the greatest battles between Austria-Hungary and Italy. During the interwar period, the region was part of the Kingdom of Italy. During this time, the Italians built fortifications known as the Alpine Wall (Ital. Vallo Alpino). These ran along the new eastern Italian and western Yugoslav border. On the Yugoslav side, the Rupnik Line of fortifications was built to counter the Italian constructions. Trails, monuments, and memorial places are physical reminders of this conflicting past. The narratives attached to these places are integrated into local and national discourses. In the past, major social conflict was associated with these memorials, but now they are being (re)constructed as tourist and hiking destinations. The research focuses on two places of memory in western Slovenia (i) the Walk of Peace trail, a 320 km route connecting outdoor museums, memorials, cemeteries, and other restored wartime sites with stories of the largely overlooked Soca/Isonzo Front, the easternmost section of the WWI Alpine or Italian Front. (ii) The second case study covers a series of memorial trails that run along the interwar border between Italy and Yugoslavia.

Preucevanje intenzivnosti erozijskih procesov spada med temeljne in pogosto obravnavane geomorfoloske dejavnosti ter obicajno vkljucuje tako terenske meritve kot tudi racunalnisko modeliranje. V Sloveniji so terenske meritve redke, zato prevladuje modeliranje erozijskih procesov. Pri slednjem je zaradi svoje preprostosti kljub pomanjkljivostim zelo priljubljena Gavriloviceva enacba v vec razlicicah. V prispevku predstavljamo uporabnost geografskih informacijskih sistemov pri izracunu posameznih clenov Gavriloviceve enacbe. Z njeno pomocjo smo za panonska gricevja severovzhodne Slovenije ocenili intenzivnost erozije. // The study of the intensity of erosion processes is one of the fundamental and often treated geomorphological activities. It usually involves both field measurements, as well as computer modelling. In Slovenia, field measurements are rare, so modelling of erosion processes prevail. Due to its simplicity the Gavrilovic equation (and its derivatives) is very popular for the calculations of erosion; despite its shortcomings. The paper presents the usefulness of geographic information systems in the calculation of individual parameters of Gavrilovic equation. The Gavrilovic equation was used to calculate the intensity of erosion in Pannonian low-hills of north-eastern Slovenia.

The chapter deals with public participation in recovery after earthquakes in the border region of Friuli (NE Italy) and the Upper Soca Valley (NW Slovenia) in 1976 (magnitude 6.4, 6 May; magnitude 6.1, 15 September—the Friuli earthquakes), 1998 (magnitude 6.0, 12 April), and 2004 (magnitude 4.9, 7 July). It highlights the differences in the concepts of the post-earthquake recovery, taking into consideration the different political systems between the two countries (capitalist Italy vs. communist Slovenia in 1976) and changes in recovery after the change of political system in Slovenia (communist Slovenia in 1976 versus capitalist Slovenia in 1998 and 2004). The research is based on a qualitative case study carried out through interviews and comparative analysis in selected settlements. From the strategy of recovery, Italy was characterized by a bottom-up and Slovenia by a top-down approach. According to Arnstein’s ladder, the citizen participation in Italy was at the highest stage of citizen power—citizen control, while Slovenia was characterized by non-participation, tokenism, and was thus at a much lower stage of citizen power, regardless of the political system.

Slovenia is characterized by an abundance of water in a great variety of forms. The river network comprises almost 28,000 km of watercourses (1.4 km/km2). However, these are not equally distributed because about 40% of Slovenia is karst and therefore almost without surface waters. Rivers from four–fifths of Slovenian territory flow several hundred kilometers to the Black Sea and from less than one fifth into the nearer Adriatic Sea. The few small natural lakes are either tectonic, glacial, or karst. The once-extensive swamps and marshes have shrunk significantly due to water regulation, and climate change has also caused the two Slovenian glaciers on Mount Triglav and Mount Skuta to shrink drastically. The population’s water supply relies heavily on groundwater. This is divided into aquifers with intergranular porosity, karst fissure porosity, and fissure porosity, all of which are threatened by pollution. Slovenia has a small share of coastal water: part of the Adriatic Sea’s Gulf of Trieste. Many parts of the country are threatened by different types of floods. The right to drinkable water is mentioned in the Slovenian constitution as a fundamental right.

The rocks that can be seen on Slovenia’s surface today formed from at least the early Paleozoic to the Quaternary, or the present. The oldest metamorphic rocks probably date even back to the Precambrian. Sedimentary rocks predominate, covering 65.1% of Slovenia’s surface. Among these, two carbonate rocks are especially common: limestone and dolomite. Loose sediments fill the tectonic depressions and river valleys, covering 29.2% of Slovenian territory. Metamorphic rocks account for 4.1% and are mostly concentrated in northeast Slovenia. Igneous rocks account for the smallest share, covering only 1.6% of the territory. Intrusive igneous rocks can only be found on the surface along the Periadriatic Seam and in the Pohorje Hills, whereas extrusive igneous rocks (or volcanic rocks) are scattered across smaller areas of the Alpine hills and mountains. Slovenia lies at the intersection of the following geotectonic units: the Dinarides, Southern Alps, Eastern Alps, and Pannonian Basin. All of these units form part of the Adriatic microplate, and their current distribution was achieved only as late as the Neogene—that is, during the past 20 million years.

Slovenia has very heterogeneous landforms because it lies at the intersection of the Alps, Dinaric Alps, Pannonian Basin, and Adriatic Sea Basin, all characterized by unique geology, tectonics, and geomorphic processes. Four major geomorphic landscape types can be defined based on their genesis. More than half of Slovenian territory has fluvial characteristics dominated by valleys and ridges. This is followed by karst terrain on roughly two-fifths of the territory, dominated by dolines, caves, and the absence of surface drainage. Glacial and coastal landscapes, dominated by glacial valleys and moraines and by coastal cliffs, respectively, are the least common types at the national scale. In addition, human activities such as mining, agriculture, and urbanization have influenced the landscape over the years, playing an important role in today’s cultural landscape as an anthropogenic landscape.

The diverse physical geographical characteristics of Slovenia result in diverse soil types. Due to widespread karst landscapes, the basic division of soils is carbonate and non-carbonate. However, the pedogeographical classification of Slovenian soils is based on topography and has three groups of soil types: soils of plains and valleys, soils of hills and mountains, and soils of karst plains and plateaus. The most common soil types are Chromic Cambisol and Rendzina alternation (33.6%), followed by Dystric Cambisol (24.2%) and Eutric Cambisol (13.3%). Most Slovenian soils formed during the Quaternary and are relatively rich in humus. Soil sealing, soil contamination, and soil erosion are the main forms of soil degradation in Slovenia.

Slovenia is one of the youngest countries in the world. It has been independent since 1991, but at the same time, it is strongly dependent on its geography. Most of its natural, economic, and cultural features result from its location in the center of Europe, where completely different geographical units intersect. It is exposed to South Slavic influences via the karstified plateaus and intermediate lowlands of the Dinaric Alps to the southeast, Hungarian influences from the continental Pannonian Basin to the northeast, Romance influences from the warm Mediterranean to the southwest, and Germanic influences via the steep mountains and deep valleys of the Alps to the northwest. Because most of the territory of what is now Slovenia belonged to Germanic states for over a thousand years, Germanic influences have left the most traces in the Slovenian cultural landscapes and among its residents. Due to its great landscape diversity and despite its smallness, Slovenia is well known for being a European landscape hotspot, and among other things the young country is increasingly using this geographical fact to strengthen its identity.

Almost all types of natural hazards that are typical for Europe also occur in Slovenia, with the exception of some major events such as volcanic eruptions or ocean-related natural hazards such as large tsunamis. The greatest economic damage is caused by natural hazards affecting agriculture, such as drought, hail, rainstorms, and frosts. Great damage is caused by floods in settlements and by landslides and avalanches in mountain areas. Periodically earthquakes occur, and heat waves are increasingly frequent. Large differences exist among Slovenian regions with respect to the types and intensity of natural hazards. In the Alpine mountains in the west and north of the country, there are frequent rockfalls, landslides, debris flows, and avalanches. Landslides and torrential floods are characteristic for the Alpine hills in central Slovenia. The Dinaric regions in the south of the country are characterized by flooding of poljes. Fires characterize the Mediterranean landscapes in southwestern Slovenia. The Pannonian lowlands in the southeast are subject to flooding, whereas the drier and agriculturally more intensive Pannonian region in the northeast of the country is most often affected by drought. Seismic hazard is high in the western as well as central and southeastern parts of the country.

It is well known that small glaciers of mid latitudes and especially those located at low altitude respond suddenly to climate changes both on local and global scale. For this reason their monitoring as well as evaluation of their extension and volume is essential. We present a ground penetrating radar (GPR) dataset acquired on September 23 and 24, 2013 on the Triglav glacier to identify layers with different characteristics (snow, firn, ice, debris) within the glacier and to define the extension and volume of the actual ice. Computing integrated and interpolated 3D using the whole GPR dataset, we estimate that at the moment of data acquisition the ice area was 3800 m2 and the ice volume 7400 m3. Its average thickness was 1.95 m while its maximum thickness was slightly more than 5 m. Here we compare the results with a previous GPR survey acquired in 2000. A critical review of the historical data to find the general trend and to forecast a possible evolution is also presented. Between 2000 and 2013, we observed relevant changes in the internal distribution of the different units (snow, firn, ice) and the ice volume reduced from about 35,000 m3 to about 7400 m3. Such result can be achieved only using multiple GPR surveys, which allow not only to assess the volume occupied by a glacial body, but also to image its internal structure and the actual ice volume. In fact, by applying one of the widely used empirical volume-area relations to infer the geometrical parameters of the glacier, a relevant underestimation of ice-loss would be achieved.

Spatial and temporal variability of annual and seasonal (summer and winter) precipitation sums and mean temperatures observed at forty-six stations in Slovenia from 1961 to 2011 were analysed. Principal component analysis (PCA) and a varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization were used to determine the dominant precipitation and temperature patterns in Slovenia. Time series data from the PCA (the principal components, PCs) were used to look for the existence of linear trends and periodicity in the precipitation and temperature data using the Mann–Kendall test and spectral analysis. The relationships between the PCs and circulation patterns, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the East Atlantic (EA) pattern, and the East Atlantic/West Russia (EA/WR) pattern, were also examined. The first four PCs of precipitation (temperature) contributed from 78.7% in summer to 94.5% in winter (98.4% in winter to 98.5% in summer) of the total variance, and their loadings indicated that the most (least) intensive signal was observed over mountainous northwest Slovenia. A statistically significant decrease of PC1 in annual precipitation and increase in mean annual and both seasonal temperatures was found. Significant relationships existed between annual and winter precipitation in Slovenia and the NAO, and temperature and the East Atlantic pattern from 1961 to 2011. Applying the spectral analysis, periods of 2.4 years in summer precipitation and 2.8 years in winter precipitation series, and 2.1 years in annual temperature (significant at the 5% level of significance) were found in Slovenia.

After the independence of Slovenia and Croatia in 1991, the former internal Yugoslav border between the two countries became an international border (today a Schengen border), of which over two-fifths follows rivers (the Drava, Sotla, Kolpa, Dragonja, and others). Rivers are natural geographical dividers whose shifting courses hamper permanent administrative demarcation, especially in flat areas exposed to frequent flooding and meandering. Thus, rivers as borders may cause problems because they are not static. Moreover, they are very dynamic and tend to change their courses; for example, one country may claim that the “old” course is the border and the other that the “new” course is the border. Practically, all rivers and streams on the Slovenian–Croatian border are such examples. Applied geography and geospatial technologies, especially geographic information systems, have played an important role in the preparation of geographical bases for the arbitration procedure to determine the Slovenian–Croatian border. The final decision, which was announced on June 29, 2017 by The Hague-based Permanent Court of Arbitration, will affect the lives of many people along the border. To analyze the dynamics of changing river courses along the Slovenian–Croatian border, we used geographic information systems and multitemporal analysis of cartographic and other pictorial sources: historical maps, historical aerial images, satellite images, and precise digital elevation models (LiDAR).