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The angiosperm genus Cuscuta lives as an almost achlorophyllous root- and leafless holoparasite and has therefore occupied scientists for more than a century. The ‘evolution’ of Cuscuta research started with early studies that established the phylogenetic framework for this unusual genus. It continued to produce groundbreaking cytological, morphological, and physiological insight throughout the second half of the 20th century and culminated in the last two decades in exciting discoveries regarding the molecular basis of Cuscuta parasitism that were facilitated by the modern ‘omics’ tools and traceable fluorescent marker technologies of the 21st century. This review will show how present activities are inspired by those past breakthroughs. It will describe significant milestones and recurring themes of Cuscuta research and connect these to the remaining as well as newly evolving questions and future directions in this research field that is expected to sustain its strong growth in the future.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens MAMP elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu) is perceived by orthologs of the Arabidopsis immune receptor EFR activating PTI that cause reduced T-DNA-mediated transient expression. We altered EF-Tu in A. tumefaciens to reduce PTI and improved transformation efficiency. A robust computational pipeline was established to detect EF-Tu protein variation in a large set of plant bacterial species and identified EF-Tu variants from bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 that allow the pathogen to escape EFR perception. A. tumefaciens strains were engineered to substitute EF-Tu with DC3000 variants and examined their transformation efficiency in plants. EF-Tu variants with rarely occurred amino acid residues were identified within DC3000 EF-Tu that mitigates recognition by EFR. A. tumefaciens strains were engineered by expressing DC3000 EF-Tu instead of native agrobacterial EF-Tu and resulted in decreased plant immunity detection. These engineered A. tumefaciens strains displayed an increased efficiency in transient expression in both Arabidopsis thaliana and Camelina sativa. The results support the potential application of these strains as improved vehicles to introduce transgenic alleles into members of the Brassicaceae family.

Parasitic plants pose a major biotic threat to plant growth and development and lead to losses in crop productivity of billions of USD annually. By comparison with “normal” autotrophic plants, parasitic plants live a heterotrophic lifestyle and rely on water, solutes and to a greater (holoparasitic plants) or lesser extent (hemiparasitic plants) on sugars from other host plants. Most hosts are unable to detect an infestation by plant parasites or unable to fend off these parasitic invaders. However, a few hosts have evolved defense strategies to avoid infestation or protect themselves actively post-attack often leading to full or partial resistance. Here, we review the current state of our understanding of the defense strategies to plant parasitism used by host plants with emphasis on the active molecular resistance mechanisms. Furthermore, we outline the perspectives and the potential of future studies that will be indispensable to develop and breed resistant crops.

Bacterial flagella are perceived by the innate immune systems of plants1 and animals2 alike, triggering resistance. Common to higher plants is the immunoreceptor FLAGELLIN-SENSING 2 (FLS2)3, which detects flagellin via its most conserved epitope, flg22. Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which causes crown gall disease in many crop plants, has a highly diverged flg22 epitope and evades immunodetection by plants so far studied. We asked whether, as a next step in this game of 'hide and seek', there are plant species that have evolved immunoreceptors with specificity for the camouflaged flg22Atum of A. tumefaciens. In the wild grape species Vitis riparia, we discovered FLS2XL, a previously unknown form of FLS2, that provides exquisite sensitivity to typical flg22 and to flg22Atum. As exemplified by ectopic expression in tobacco, FLS2XL can limit crown gall disease caused by A. tumefaciens.

Activation of plant pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) relies on the recognition of microbe-derived structures, termed patterns, through plant-encoded surface-resident pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). We show that proteobacterial translation initiation factor 1 (IF1) triggers PTI in Arabidopsis thaliana and related Brassicaceae species. Unlike for most other immunogenic patterns, IF1 elicitor activity cannot be assigned to a small peptide epitope, suggesting that tertiary fold features are required for IF1 receptor activation. We have deployed natural variation in IF1 sensitivity to identify Arabidopsis leucine-rich repeat (LRR) receptor-like protein 32 (RLP32) as IF1 receptor using a restriction site-associated DNA sequencing approach. RLP32 confers IF1 sensitivity to rlp32 mutants, IF1-insensitive Arabidopsis accessions and IF1-insensitive Nicotiana benthamiana, binds IF1 specifically and forms complexes with LRR receptor kinases SOBIR1 and BAK1 to mediate signaling. Similar to other PRRs, RLP32 confers resistance to Pseudomonas syringae, highlighting an unexpectedly complex array of bacterial pattern sensors within a single plant species.

Pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) is a central component of plant immunity. Activation of PTI relies on the recognition of microbe-derived structures, termed patterns, through plant encoded surface-resident pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). We have identified proteobacterial translation initiation factor 1 (IF1) as an immunogenic pattern that triggers PTI in Arabidopsis thaliana and some related Brassicaceae species. Unlike most other immunogenic patterns identified, IF1 elicitor activity cannot be assigned to a small peptide epitope, suggesting that tertiary fold features are required for IF1 receptor activation. We have deployed natural variation in IF1 sensitivity to identify leucine-rich repeat (LRR) receptor-like protein 32 (RLP32) as the corresponding Arabidopsis receptor using a restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) approach. Transgenic expression of RLP32 confers IF1 sensitivity to rlp32 mutants, IF1-insensitive Arabidopsis accessions and IF1-insensitive Nicotiana benthamiana. RLP32 binds IF1 specifically and forms complexes with LRR receptor kinases SOBIR1 and BAK1 to mediate signaling. Similar to previously identified PRRs RLP32 confers resistance to Pseudomonas syringae infection, highlighting an unexpectedly complex array of bacterial pattern sensors within a single plant species.

Plant pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) facilitate recognition of microbial patterns and mediate activation of plant immunity. Arabidopsis thaliana RLP42 senses fungal endopolygalacturonases (PGs) and triggers plant defence through complex formation with SOBIR1 and SERK co-receptors. Here, we show that a conserved 9-amino-acid fragment pg9(At) within PGs is sufficient to activate RLP42-dependent plant immunity. Structure-function analysis reveals essential roles of amino acid residues within the RLP42 leucine-rich repeat and island domains for ligand binding and PRR complex assembly. Sensitivity to pg9(At), which is restricted to A. thaliana and exhibits scattered accession specificity, is unusual for known PRRs. Arabidopsis arenosa and Brassica rapa, two Brassicaceae species closely related to A. thaliana, respectively perceive immunogenic PG fragments pg20(Aa) and pg36(Bra), which are structurally distinct from pg9(At). Our study provides evidence for rapid evolution of polymorphic PG sensors with distinct pattern specificities within a single plant family.

The discovery in tomato of systemin, the first plant peptide hormone1,2, was a fundamental change for the concept of plant hormones. Numerous other peptides have since been shown to play regulatory roles in many aspects of the plant life, including growth, development, fertilization and interactions with symbiotic organisms3-6. Systemin, an 18 amino acid peptide derived from a larger precursor protein 7 , was proposed to act as the spreading signal that triggers systemic defence responses observed in plants after wounding or attack by herbivores1,7,8. Further work culminated in the identification of a leucine-rich repeat receptor kinase (LRR-RK) as the systemin receptor 160 (SR160)9,10. SR160 is a tomato homologue of Brassinosteroid Insensitive 1 (BRI1), which mediates the regulation of growth and development in response to the steroid hormone brassinolide11-13. However, a role of SR160/BRI1 as systemin receptor could not be corroborated by others14-16. Here, we demonstrate that perception of systemin depends on a pair of distinct LRR-RKs termed SYR1 and SYR2. SYR1 acts as a genuine systemin receptor that binds systemin with high affinity and specificity. Further, we show that presence of SYR1, although not decisive for local and systemic wound responses, is important for defence against insect herbivory.

In addition to other biotic stresses, parasitic plants pose an additional threat to plants and cause crop losses, worldwide. Plant parasites directly connect to the vasculature of host plants thereby stealing water, nutrients, and carbohydrates consequently leading to tremendously reduced biomass and losses in seed yields of the infected host plants. Initial steps to understand the molecular resistance mechanisms and the successes in ancient and recent breeding efforts will provide fundamental knowledge to further generate crop plants that will resist attacks by plant parasites.

Quinones are small secondary metabolites synthesized by a broad range of organisms. Perception of these aromatic molecules in plants involves membrane-bound LRR-RLKs to induce downstream cellular responses in plants such as calcium fluxes, specific gene expression and MAPK activation.

Bacterial flagella are perceived by the innate immune systems of plants

Arbeit an der Bibliothek noch nicht eingelangt - Daten nicht geprüft Abweichender Titel laut Übersetzung des Verfassers/der Verfasserin Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Masterarbeit, 2019

The root cap protects the stem cell niche of angiosperm roots from damage. In Arabidopsis, lateral root cap (LRC) cells covering the meristematic zone are regularly lost through programmed cell death, while the outermost layer of the root cap covering the tip is repeatedly sloughed. Efficient coordination with stem cells producing new layers is needed to maintain a constant size of the cap. We present a signalling pair, the peptide IDA-LIKE1 (IDL1) and its receptor HAESA-LIKE2 (HSL2), mediating such communication. Live imaging over several days characterized this process from initial fractures in LRC cell files to full separation of a layer. Enhanced expression of IDL1 in the separating root cap layers resulted in increased frequency of sloughing, balanced with generation of new layers in a HSL2-dependent manner. Transcriptome analyses linked IDL1-HSL2 signalling to the transcription factors BEARSKIN1/2 and genes associated with programmed cell death. Mutations in either IDL1 or HSL2 slowed down cell division, maturation and separation. Thus, IDL1-HSL2 signalling potentiates dynamic regulation of the homeostatic balance between stem cell division and sloughing activity.

The oxidative burst or the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a typical cellular response of both plants and animals to diverse abiotic and biotic stresses. Mainly, the (re-)active oxygen species include the superoxide anion (O

In living organisms, physical interaction of ligand molecules with their cognate receptors is an indispensable requirement for the initiation of cellular signaling pathways. To technically prove the biochemical interaction of ligands with their corresponding receptor, a biologically active but labeled peptide is required. Easily scorable bioassays, such as the production of reactive oxygen species, can be used to quantify the activity of a peptide. By using chemiluminescent probes, such as acridinium esters, as conjugates to label peptide ligands of interest, quantitative measurements of ligand-receptor binding can be performed in standard luminometers. Here we describe how this binding approach can be used to reveal peptide ligand-receptor binding in plant material.

The oxidative burst or the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a typical cellular response of both plants and animals to diverse abiotic and biotic stresses. Mainly, the (re-)active oxygen species include the superoxide anion (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and the hydroxyl radical (OH•). Here, we outline the detection of extracellularly produced ROS in plant leaf pieces using a chemiluminescence-based bioassay with the luminol L-012 as a substrate being oxidized in the presence of ROS. Since this type of assay is in use in many laboratories, e.g., as a readout for activation of plant receptor kinases, we include a discussion on the interpretation of results and points addressing problems with the buffers at suboptimal pH values that negatively influence the chemiluminescence production.

Cuscuta spp. are widespread obligate holoparasitic plants with a broad host spectrum. Rootless Cuscuta penetrates host stems with so called haustoria to form a direct connection to the host vascular tissue ( Dawson et al., 1994 ; Lanini and Kogan, 2005; Kaiser et al., 2015 ). This connection allows a steady uptake of water, assimilates and essential nutrients from the host plant and therefore enables Cuscuta growth and proliferation. To quantify the parasites' ability to grow on potential host plants one can use the quantitative growth assay ( Hegenauer et al., 2016 ) described herein, which exclusively utilizes fresh weight measurement as readout.

In living organisms, physical interaction of ligand molecules with their cognate receptors is an indispensable requirement for the initiation of cellular signaling pathways. To technically prove the biochemical interaction of ligands with their corresponding receptor, a biologically active but labeled peptide is required. Easily scorable bioassays, such as the production of reactive oxygen species, can be used to quantify the activity of a peptide. By using chemiluminescent probes, such as acridinium esters, as conjugates to label peptide ligands of interest, quantitative measurements of ligand-receptor binding can be performed in standard luminometers. Here we describe how this binding approach can be used to reveal peptide ligand-receptor binding in plant material.

Peptide signals have emerged as an important class of regulators in cell-to-cell communication in plants. Several families of small, secreted proteins with a conserved C-terminal Pro-rich motif have been identified as functional peptide signals in Arabidopsis thaliana. These proteins are presumed to be trimmed proteolytically and undergo posttranslational modifications, such as hydroxylation of Pro residues and glycosylation, to form mature, bioactive signals. Identification and matching of such ligands with their respective receptors remains a major challenge since the genes encoding them often show redundancy and low expression restricted to a few cells or particular developmental stages. To overcome these difficulties, we propose the use of ectopic expression of receptor genes in suitable plant cells like Nicotiana benthamiana for testing ligand candidates in receptor output assays and in binding studies. As an example, we used the IDA peptide HAE/HSL2 receptor signaling system known to regulate floral organ abscission. We demonstrate that the oxidative burst response can be employed as readout for receptor activation by synthetic peptides and that a new, highly sensitive, nonradioactive labeling approach can be used to reveal a direct correlation between peptide activity and receptor affinity. We suggest that these approaches will be of broad value for the field of ligand-receptor studies in plants.

We present new deep near-infrared broad- and narrow-band imaging and low-resolution spec-troscopy of the star formation region RCW 121 (IRAS 17149−3916) which we analyse incombination withHerschel(70, 160, 250, 350 and 500μm) andSpitzer(3.6, 4.5, 5.8 and 8μm)images. The near-infrared photometry reveals the presence of a stellar cluster of approximatesize of 92 arcsec which is composed of at least 264 members, approximately 25 per cent ofthese showing excess emission atλ>2.0μm, indicative of circumstellar discs. Isochronescorresponding to ages 0.5–1.0 Myr andAV=7.8 fit well the position of a large fraction of likelycluster members in theKsversusH−Ksdiagram. We find three massive star-forming coreslocated in the boundaries of an expanding HIIregion ionized by a central O-type star. Fromtheir far-infrared spectral energy distributions (SEDs) we derive masses and temperatures ofthe dense cores. When these young stellar objects (YSOs) have warm emission components,the 1.2–500μm SEDs are fitted with Robitaille et al.’s star–disc-envelope model to obtain theirphysical parameters. The masses of the three YSOs are between 8 and 10 M . The youngestsite (core I) is undetected atλ

OBJECTIVES We evaluated quantitative acoustic measurements, as a simpler alternative to perfusion scintigraphy, for estimation of predicted postoperative (ppo) lung function after resection surgery in our patient population. METHODS Patients with lung cancer, considered as candidates for lung resection, were enrolled in the study. All patients underwent lung function testing and quantitative breath sound testing by vibration response imaging (VRI) on the same day. A subset of patients also had perfusion testing. Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1)) and diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO) predictions derived from VRI testing were compared with perfusion values and actual FEV(1) values at 1 month postoperatively. RESULTS Fifty-three subjects (40 males; age 66±8 y) participated. There was high correlation between both methods for the calculation of ppoFEV(1)% (R=0.94; n=39) and ppoFEV (L) (R=0.90; n=39). PpoFEV(1) were 58±18% versus 56±20% and 1.69±0.49 L versus 1.62±0.52 L, based on perfusion and VRI methods, respectively. In 92% (36/39) of calculations, the difference between the 2 methods was

As part of their immune system, plants have pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that can detect a broad range of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). Here, we identified a PRR of Arabidopsis thaliana with specificity for the bacterial MAMP eMax from xanthomonads. Response to eMax seems to be restricted to the Brassicaceae family and also varied among different accessions of Arabidopsis. In crosses between sensitive accessions and the insensitive accession Shakhdara, eMax perception mapped to RECEPTOR-LIKE PROTEIN1 (RLP1). Functional complementation of rlp1 mutants required gene constructs that code for a longer version of RLP1 that we termed ReMAX (for receptor of eMax). ReMAX/RLP1 is a typical RLP with structural similarity to the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) RLP Eix2, which detects fungal xylanase as a MAMP. Attempts to demonstrate receptor function by interfamily transfer of ReMAX to Nicotiana benthamiana were successful after using hybrid receptors with the C-terminal part of ReMAX replaced by that of Eix2. These results show that ReMAX determines specificity for eMax. They also demonstrate hybrid receptor technology as a promising tool to overcome problems that impede interfamily transfer of PRRs to enhance pathogen detection in crop plants.

Receptor kinases sense extracellular signals and trigger intracellular signaling and physiological responses. However, how does signal binding to the extracellular domain activate the cytoplasmic kinase domain? Activation of the plant immunoreceptor Flagellin sensing2 (FLS2) by its bacterial ligand flagellin or the peptide-epitope flg22 coincides with rapid complex formation with a second receptor kinase termed brassinosteroid receptor1 associated kinase1 (BAK1). Here, we show that the receptor pair of FLS2 and BAK1 is also functional when the roles of the complex partners are reversed by swapping their cytosolic domains. This reciprocal constellation prevents interference by redundant partners that can partially substitute for BAK1 and demonstrates that formation of the heteromeric complex is the molecular switch for transmembrane signaling. A similar approach with swaps between the Elongation factor-Tu receptor and BAK1 also resulted in a functional receptor/coreceptor pair, suggesting that a “two-hybrid-receptor assay” is of more general use for studying heteromeric receptor complexes.

Cuscuta spp. are widespread obligate holoparasitic plants with a broad host spectrum. Rootless Cuscuta penetrates host stems with so called haustoria to form a direct connection to the host vascular tissue ( Dawson et al., 1994 ; Lanini and Kogan, 2005; Kaiser et al., 2015 ). This connection allows a steady uptake of water, assimilates and essential nutrients from the host plant and therefore enables Cuscuta growth and proliferation. To quantify the parasites’ ability to grow on potential host plants one can use the quantitative growth assay ( Hegenauer et al., 2016 ) described herein, which exclusively utilizes fresh weight measurement as readout.

Plants and animals recognize microbial invaders by detecting microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by cell surface receptors. Many plant species of the Solanaceae family detect the highly conserved nucleic acid binding motif RNP-1 of bacterial cold-shock proteins (CSPs), represented by the peptide csp22, as a MAMP. Here, we exploited the natural variation in csp22 perception observed between cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and Solanum pennellii to map and identify the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) receptor kinase CORE (cold shock protein receptor) of tomato as the specific, high-affinity receptor site for csp22. Corroborating its function as a genuine receptor, heterologous expression of CORE in Arabidopsis thaliana conferred full sensitivity to csp22 and, importantly, it also rendered these plants more resistant to infection by the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Our study also confirms the biotechnological potential of enhancing plant immunity by interspecies transfer of highly effective pattern-recognition receptors such as CORE to different plant families.

Dodders (Cuscuta spp.) are holoparasitic plants that enwind stems of host plants and penetrate those by haustoria to connect to the vascular bundles. Having a broad host plant spectrum, Cuscuta spp infect nearly all dicot plants – only cultivated tomato as one exception is mounting an active defense specifically against C. reflexa. In a recent work we identified a pattern recognition receptor of tomato, “Cuscuta Receptor 1“ (CuRe1), which is critical to detect a “Cuscuta factor” (CuF) and initiate defense responses such as the production of ethylene or the generation of reactive oxygen species. CuRe1 also contributes to the tomato resistance against C. reflexa. Here we point to the fact that CuRe1 is not the only relevant component for full tomato resistance but it requires additional defense mechanisms, or receptors, respectively, to totally fend off the parasite.

Resistance is not, after all, futile The parasitic plant known as dodder attaches to its hosts and sucks the life out of them. Oddly, the common tomato stands tall when under attack. Hegenauer et al. have leveraged that difference to identify part of the molecular defense system that protects tomato plants (see the Perspective by Ntoukakis and Gimenez-Ibanez). In a process analogous to defenses mounted against microbial infection, the host plant perceives a small-peptide signal from the parasitic plant and initiates defense responses. The candidate receptor isolated from the tomato plant provided partial protection when transferred to two other susceptible plant species. Science , this issue p. 478 ; see also p. 442

The pattern recognition receptor FLAGELLIN SENSING2 (FLS2) renders plant cells responsive to subnanomolar concentrations of flg22, the active epitope of bacterial flagellin. We recently observed that a preparation of the peptide IDL1, a signal known to regulate abscission processes via the receptor kinases HAESA and HAESA-like2, apparently triggered Arabidopsis thaliana cells in an FLS2-dependent manner. However, closer investigation revealed that this activity was due to contamination by a flg22-type peptide, and newly synthesized IDL1 peptide was completely inactive in FLS2 signaling. This raised alert over contamination events occurring in the process of synthesis or handling of peptides. Two recent reports have suggested that FLS2 has further specificities for structurally unrelated peptides derived from CLV3 and from Ax21. We thus scrutinized these peptides for activity in Arabidopsis cells as well. While responding to

Plants and animals employ innate immune systems to cope with microbial infection. Pattern-triggered immunity relies on the recognition of microbe-derived patterns by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Necrosis and ethylene-inducing peptide 1-like proteins (NLPs) constitute plant immunogenic patterns that are unique, as these proteins are produced by multiple prokaryotic (bacterial) and eukaryotic (fungal, oomycete) species. Here we show that the leucine-rich repeat receptor protein (LRR-RP) RLP23 binds in vivo to a conserved 20-amino-acid fragment found in most NLPs (nlp20), thereby mediating immune activation in Arabidopsis thaliana. RLP23 forms a constitutive, ligand-independent complex with the LRR receptor kinase (LRR-RK) SOBIR1 (Suppressor of Brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BRI1)-associated kinase (BAK1)-interacting receptor kinase 1), and recruits a second LRR-RK, BAK1, into a tripartite complex upon ligand binding. Stable, ectopic expression of RLP23 in potato (Solanum tuberosum) confers nlp20 pattern recognition and enhanced immunity to destructive oomycete and fungal plant pathogens, such as Phytophthora infestans and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PRRs that recognize widespread microbial patterns might be particularly suited for engineering immunity in crop plants.

Dodder or Cuscutaceae are holoparasitic plants subsisting on other dicotyledonous plants. The infection process is initiated by adherence of Cuscuta prehaustoria to the host surface, followed by penetration attempts by hyphae. In the case of a successful infection, these organs connect the parasite's vascular tissue to that of the host. Here we show that contact of Cuscuta reflexa prehaustoria to tomato induces the expression of a new arabinogalactan protein (AGP), attAGP, in the tomato precisely at the site of dodder attack. We show that attAGP is a plasma membrane-bound cell wall-localized protein. Using the RNAi technique and attAGP-targeted virus-induced gene silencing, we observed a correlation between attAGP expression level and force of attachment of the parasite to host tomatoes. If the expression level of attAGP was reduced, the C. reflexa attachment capability was significantly reduced, too. We conclude that C. reflexa infection induced a signal in the host leading to expression of tomato attAGP, which promotes the parasite's adherence.

A suppressive subtractive hybridization technique was used to identify genes, which were induced during the early phases of the interaction between dodder (Cuscuta reflexa), a phanerogamic parasite, and its incompatible host plant tomato. One of the identified genes encodes a tomato xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH)--an enzyme involved in cell wall elongation and restructuring. The corresponding LeXTH1 mRNA accumulated 6 h after attachment of the parasite. In contrast, wounding did not influence the expression level. Subsequent to LeXTH1 mRNA accumulation, an increase in XTH activity at the infection sites as well as in adjacent tissues was observed. The effect of IAA on LeXTH1 expression was analyzed because the concentration of this phytohormone is known to increase in the tomato tissue during the interaction with the parasite. LeXTH1 mRNA accumulation was in fact induced by external application of auxin. However, in the auxin-insensitive tomato mutant diageotropica, Cuscuta induced LeXTH1-mRNA accumulated with a time course similar to wild type tomato. Thus, auxin appears not to be an essential signal for infection-induced LeXTH1 activation. Our data suggest a role for xyloglucan transglycosylation in defence reactions associated with the incompatible tomato- Cuscuta interaction.

In the version of this Article originally published, Fig. 6b, which is composed of individual pictures of six plants, inadvertently and erroneously displayed the same image of one Col-0 wt plant twice. This has been corrected so that Fig. 6b now shows two different representative plants for the Col-0 wt control.

The plant parasite Cuscuta reflexa induces various responses in compatible and incompatible host plants. The visual reactions of both types of host plants including obvious morphological changes require the recognition of Cuscuta ssp. A consequently initiated signaling cascade is triggered which leads to a tolerance of the infection or, in the case of some incompatible host plants, to resistance. Calcium (Ca(2+)) release is the major second messenger during signal transduction. Therefore, we have studied Ca(2+) spiking in tomato and tobacco during infection with C. reflexa. In our recently published study Ca(2+) signals were monitored as bioluminescence in aequorin-expressing tomato plants after the onset of C. reflexa infestation. Signals at the attachment sites were observed from 30 to 48 h after infection. In an assay with leaf disks of aequorin-expressing tomato which were treated with different C. reflexa plant extracts it turned out that the substance that induced Ca(2+) release in the host plant was closely linked to the parasite's haustoria.

Plants are confronted with several biotic stresses such as microbial pathogens and other herbivores. To defend against such attackers, plants possess an array of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that sense the danger and consequently initiate a defence programme that prevents further damage and spreading of the pest. Characteristic pathogenic structures, so-called microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), serve as signals that allow the plant to sense invaders. Additionally, pathogens wound or damage the plant and the resulting release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) serves as a warning signal. This review focuses on peptides that serve as triggers or amplifiers of plant defence and thus follow the definition of a MAMP or a DAMP.