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Monitoring of peatlands is an important conservation issue. We investigated communities of soil mites (Acari: Oribatida, Mesostigmata) inhabiting a relatively undisturbed European boreal mire characterized by a mosaic of oligotrophic and meso-eutrophic areas. We assess the potential of using remote sensing approach as a mapping and predictive tool for monitoring productivity and arthropod biodiversity in a peat bog. In georeferenced plots, Acari biodiversity, water table level, water pH and plot productivity class on the oligotrophic-eutrophic gradient were recorded. Data from the Landsat 8 OLI sensor were used to calculate several spectral indices known to represent productivity and surface moisture gradients in terrestrial ecosystems. We then explored the relationship between spectral indices, environmental gradients and biodiversity of mites. We found that several spectral indices were significantly and consistently correlated with local environmental variables and biodiversity of soil mites. The Excess Green Index performed best as a predictor of plot trophic class on the oligotrophic-eutrophic gradient and showed significant relationship with Oribatida diversity in 2016. However, following hot summer in 2019, there was no significant relationship between abundance and species richness of Oribatida and remotely sensed data; there was a weak correlation between abundance of Mesostigmata and spectral indices which represent surface moisture gradient (e.g., Normalised Difference Moisture Index). We discuss advantages and challenges of using spectral indices derived from remote sensing imagery to map biodiversity gradients in a peatland.

Soil life supports the functioning and biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems. Springtails (Collembola) are among the most abundant soil arthropods regulating soil fertility and flow of energy through above- and belowground food webs. However, the global distribution of springtail diversity and density, and how these relate to energy fluxes remains unknown. Here, using a global dataset representing 2470 sites, we estimate the total soil springtail biomass at 27.5 megatons carbon, which is threefold higher than wild terrestrial vertebrates, and record peak densities up to 2 million individuals per square meter in the tundra. Despite a 20-fold biomass difference between the tundra and the tropics, springtail energy use (community metabolism) remains similar across the latitudinal gradient, owing to the changes in temperature with latitude. Neither springtail density nor community metabolism is predicted by local species richness, which is high in the tropics, but comparably high in some temperate forests and even tundra. Changes in springtail activity may emerge from latitudinal gradients in temperature, predation and resource limitation in soil communities. Contrasting relationships of biomass, diversity and activity of springtail communities with temperature suggest that climate warming will alter fundamental soil biodiversity metrics in different directions, potentially restructuring terrestrial food webs and affecting soil functioning. The article is an outcome of the #GlobalCollembola community initiative that is voluntarily supported by researchers around the world. Data collection and analysis was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (19-74-00154 to A.P.) and by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (493345801 to A.P. and 192626868—SFB 990 to S.S.). We acknowledge support by the Open Access Publication Funds of the Göttingen University. The following funding bodies provided support for individual contributors: ARC SRIEAS Grant SR200100005 Securing Antarctica’s Environmental Future to S.L.C., Slovak Scientific Grant Agency VEGA 1/0438/22 to Ľ.K., RFBR 19-516-60002 to N.A.K., Carl Tryggers Stiftelse för Vetenskaplig Forskning and Qatar Petroleum to J.M.A., BIO 27 (2013-2014)-MAGyP and PICTO 2084 (2012)-ANPCyT to V.B., DAAD-19-10 and MSM200962001 to T.C., grant TE, PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2019-0358 to C.F., NWO grant 821.01.015 to O.F., National Natural Sciences Foundation of China No 41471037 and 41871042 to M.G., BIO 27 (2013-2014), MAGyP; PICT 2084 (2012), FONCyT to D.F.G., NRF South African National Antarctic Programme grant 110734 to M.G., Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), EcoEnergy Innovation Initiative under the Office of Energy Research and Development, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to I.T.H., L.A.V. and L.R., Independent Research Fund Denmark grant no. DFF-4002-00384 to M.H., Estonian Science Foundation G9145 to M.I., SA-France bilateral grant to C.J., SA (NRF)/Russia (RFBR) Joint Science and Technology Research Collaboration project no. 19-516-60002 (FRBR) and no. 118904 (NRF) to M.P. and C.J., European Research Council (ERC), European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 677232; to N.E.); iDiv, German Research Foundation (DFG–FZT 118, 202548816) to M.J. and N.E., French National Agency of Research (ANR) (JASSUR research project; ANR-12-VBDU-0011), «Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche» and «Ministère de l’Education Nationale de la Recherche et de la Technologie» (ACTA programme), «Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’Environnement» (Pnetox programme), EU-funded project, ECOGEN QLK5-CT-2002-01666 (www.ecogen.dk), “Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Énergie” (BIOINDICATEUR 2, BIOTECHNOSOL), ANDRA and GISFI (www.gisfi.fr) to S.J., GRR SER-BIODIV (Région Normandie, France) to MCha, ESF9258, B02 to A.K., Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant no. 2018CDXYCH0014) to D.L., DFG 316045089 to J.L., Massey University Research Fund grant to M.A.M., DFG SCHE 376/38-2 to M.M.P., grant from the Austria Academy of Science: Heritage_2020-043_Modeling-Museum to P.Q., Slovak Scientific Grant Agency: VEGA Nos. 1/0441/03 and 1/3267/06 to N.R., Higher Education Commission of Pakistan to M.I.R., RSF 21-74-00126 to R.A.S., Austrian Federal Government and European Union (Rural Development 2014-2020) to J.S., АААА-А17-122040600025-2 to A.A.T., Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological Development—CNPq (grant no. 152717/2016-1) to B.R.W., 309030/2018-8 to D.Z. and 305426/2018-4 to B.C.B., National Natural Science Foundation of China (31970434, 31772491) to N.N.G., Research and Innovation Support Foundation of Santa Catarina (FAPESC) (6.309/2011-6/FAPESC) and the CNPq (563251/2010-7/CNPq) to L.C.I.O.F., O.K.-F., the Latvian Council of Science Grants no. 90.108, 93.140, 96.0110, 01.0344 to E.J., CNPq for the Research Productivity Grant (305939/2018-1) to D.B., FPI-MICINN grant in the project INTERCAPA (CGL2014-56739-R) to P.H, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to Z.L., Ministry of Innovation and Technology of Hungary TKP2021-NKTA-43 to D.W. Authors are grateful to Penelope Greenslade for providing the literature on Australian Collembola communities. Authors are grateful to Frans Janssens for providing the global checklist of Collembola.

Megalothorax Willem, 1900 is a genus of Neelidae (Collembola) with worldwide distribution. Three new species are described here: Megalothorax anterolenis sp. nov. (Patagonia, Chile), Megalothorax tasmanterolenis sp. nov. (Tasmania, Australia) and Megalothorax zealanterolenis sp. nov. (the South Island, New Zealand). New descriptive elements are also provided for Megalothorax rubidus. Two of the new species were sequenced (COI, 16S rDNA, 28S rDNA). Within the genus, the three new species form a new group of species characterised by the absence of secondary granulation dorsally on the head and the thorax, a reduced chaetotaxy of the basomedian field of labium, a bifurcate hair on the maxillary outer lobe and an enlarged S-chaeta (Sa2) on Ant. IV. The molecular based phylogeny further supports the sistership of the two sequenced species. The possible Gondwanan origin of the new group is discussed. Elements of discussion are also provided regarding the possible function of the incomplete coverage of secondary granulation. Finally, an open interactive identification key for the Megalothorax species of the world is introduced.

The black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) has been recognized as a promising insect species for sustainable management of organic waste and by-products. Indoor breeding of BSF with artificial lighting has been proved successful, but efforts are still needed to optimize BSF reproductive output. Increasing adult density seems an option to exploit space, whereas decreasing artificial lighting duration may reduce unnecessary power consumption. This study aimed at investigating the effects of adult density (10, 25, and 50 pairs per 30 × 30 × 30 cm cage; i.e., 370, 926, and 1,852 pairs/m3), light regime (8:16, 12:12, and 16:8 [L:D] h), and their possible interactions, on some BSF life history traits relevant to reproduction. The results show that the overall BSF reproductive output increased with increasing adult density but was not affected by light regimes per se. With the highest BSF adult density tested, an average of more than 20,000 neonate larvae were produced from a cage within 10 d. At this density, increasing photoperiod increased neonate production, but also decreased the number of neonates per watt used for artificial illumination. The temporal oviposition patterns, mean individual female reproductive output, mating success, egg hatching rate, and insect survival rate were not affected by adult density or light regime as simple effects. However, the interaction between adult density and light regime was significant for the first oviposition peak, mean individual female reproductive output, and insect survival rate. The possible mechanisms behind our results are discussed.

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The giant willow aphid, Tuberolachnus salignus is an invasive insect in New Zealand for which control measures are being sought due to its detrimental effects on willow cultivation and apiculture. We evaluated the biocontrol potential of the harlequin ladybird beetle, Harmoniaaxyridis, by measuring voracity and feeding preference of larvae and adults in laboratory trials. Results show that H. axyridis consumes T. salignus, with females being more voracious than males and larvae. However, H. axyridis fed T. salignus took longer to develop, gained less weight and had lower survival compared with those fed eggs of the Mediterranean flour moth, Ephestiakuehniella. In a choice test, larval and adult H. axyridis preferred the green peach aphid, Myzuspersicae, as prey item, rejecting T. salignus. We suggest that H. axyridis is likely to use T. salignus only as a facultative prey, and therefore cannot be prioritised as a potential biocontrol agent.

Soil life supports the functioning and biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems1, 2. Springtails (Collembola) are among the most abundant soil animals regulating soil fertility and flow of energy through above- and belowground food webs3–5. However, the global distribution of springtail diversity and density, and how these relate to energy fluxes remains unknown. Here, using a global dataset collected from 2,470 sites, we estimate total soil springtail biomass at 29 Mt carbon (threefold higher than wild terrestrial vertebrates6) and record peak densities up to 2 million individuals per m² in the Arctic. Despite a 20-fold biomass difference between tundra and the tropics, springtail energy use (community metabolism) remains similar across the latitudinal gradient, owing to the increase in temperature. Neither springtail density nor community metabolism were predicted by local species richness, which was highest in the tropics, but comparably high in some temperate forests and even tundra. Changes in springtail activity may emerge from latitudinal gradients in temperature, predation7, 8, and resource limitation7, 9, 10 in soil communities. Contrasting temperature responses of biomass, diversity and activity of springtail communities suggest that climate warming will alter fundamental soil biodiversity metrics in different directions, potentially restructuring terrestrial food webs and affecting major soil functions.

This study aimed to investigate whether the infection intensity of Theileria orientalis Ikeda type organisms within Haemaphysalis longicornis larvae and nymph stages fluctuated over 6 mo after feeding as larvae on infected calves in the field. Naive larvae, hatched from eggs, were fed on infected calves for 5 days while contained within cotton socks glued over the calves' ears. Larvae were first sampled immediately post-feeding and then sampled every 3 wk for 23 wk in total, after molting to nymphs. All larvae and nymphs were tested for T. orientalis Ikeda organisms using quantitative PCR. The qPCR results showed that the infection intensity of Haemaphysalis longicornis larvae and nymphs was not constant over the sampling period, and after initially dropping after molting to nymphs, it then rose with fasting to a maximum at 17 and 23 wk post-feeding. The significant rise in T. orientalis Ikeda organisms observed at 23 wk postfeeding may explain why more severe clinical cases of bovine theileriosis in New Zealand are seen in the spring when nymphs are the predominant instar questing.

The sap-sucking lace bug Gargaphia decoris Drake (Hemiptera: Tingidae) is a biological control agent released in New Zealand to control the invasive small tree or shrub Solanum mauritianum Scopoli (Solanaceae). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of temperature, photoperiod and humidity on selected G. decoris life history traits. The selected traits were measured at six different temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 27.5 and 30 °C), three photoperiods (L:D 6:16, 14:10 and 16:8) and two relative humidity (RH) levels (50 and 70 ± 10%). Eggs and nymphs did not survive in the 10 °C and 30 °C treatments. The net reproductive rate (R0) resulted in population growth at all temperatures, but was highest at 25 °C. Egg hatch rate was highest at L:D 8:16, and nymphal and adult survival was better at L:D 16:8. Egg hatch was higher at 50 ± 10% RH and adult survival and population growth were higher at 70 ± 10% RH. These results will help to predict the persistence of established G. decoris populations and the potential for establishment at new release sites.

Two new species of oribatid mites of the genus Pseudotocepheus (Oribatida, Otocepheidae) are described from litter and soil in New Zealand. Pseudotocepheus whanganuiensis sp. nov. differs f...

We investigated oribatid mite communities in a Sphagnum-dominated boreal peatland system characterised by a mosaic of oligotrophic and meso-eutrophic areas. We aimed to determine the relative importance of environmental factors (pH, Sphagnum nutrient content, water table level, diversity of vascular plants and bryophytes in the surrounding plant community) and spatial variation in influencing abundance, diversity and community composition of aquatic and terrestrial oribatid mites. Among environmental variables, water table level (micro-topography), pH, and K in Sphagnum tissues were the main predictors of Oribatida community structure. Aquatic species were associated with pools; two terrestrial species—Hoplophthiracarus illinoisensis and Nothrus pratensis—were associated with oligotrophic hummocks; the rest of terrestrial species were associated with dryer mesotrophic and eutrophic habitats. Low water table depth (hummocks), high local plant diversity, and high P in Sphagnum tissues were predictors of high abundance of terrestrial Oribatida. Species richness of terrestrial Oribatida was linked with low water table and high plant diversity. For aquatic Oribatida abundance, water table depth was the single most important predictor variable. Plot trophic class (its status on the peatland poor-rich gradient assigned based on plant indicator species) was also a significant predictor of terrestrial Oribatida abundance, richness, and community structure. Spatial structuring was important for terrestrial Oribatida community composition, weak (P

Two new species of oripodoid mites (Oribatida, Oripodoidea) are described from the Kahurangi National Park in New Zealand. Angullozetes kahurangiensis sp. n. (Scheloribatidae) differs from Angullozetes rostratus Hammer, 1967 by the rounded rostrum and clavate bothridial setae with minute stalk and large, elongated head, and from Angullozetes arilloi Ermilov et al., Ecol Mont 18:75–81, 2018 by the presence of aggenital setae and three pairs of notogastral porose areas. Totobates elatus sp. n. (Haplozetidae) differs from Totobates elegans (Hammer, 1958) and Totobates ovalis Hammer, 1967 by the lanceolate bothridial setae. An identification key to known species of Angullozetes is presented.

Four new species of the mite family Microdispidae, Phyllodispus tenuisetus sp. nov., Promicrodispus bisetus sp. nov., Premicrodispus (Premicrodispus) novaezealandicus sp. nov., and Premicrodispus (Premicrodispulus) secundus sp. nov., are described from soil in alpine New Zealand. The genus Promicrodispus and subgenus Premicrodispus (Premicrodispulus) are recorded from New Zealand for the first time.

This study aimed to determine the suitability of several organic waste substrates to be processed by the larvae of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (BSFL) in a value-added bioconversion system. Three types of organic waste (brewer's waste, solid phase of pig manure, and semidigested grass) were tested and compared with a standard larval diet, broll (wheat middling). Larval survival and growth, chemical composition of the resulting prepupae, conversion ratios of nutrients and waste dry matter, and waste reduction rate were measured. Larval survival was high in all tested substrates. Compared with the larvae fed pig manure or semidigested grass, those fed standard diet or brewer's waste showed shorter development time, higher weight gain, and higher prepupal crude protein and crude fat content. BSFL also reduce more dry matter in the standard diet or in brewer's waste than in the other two substrates. On the other hand, larvae fed semidigested grass took 70 d to complete development and suffered fat loss. Thus, we suggest that brewer's waste is the most suitable substrate among the selected wastes for being processed by BSFL, whereas semidigested grass is an unsuitable substrate. We found that lignin had a significantly negative effect on larval growth, and emphasized the importance of applying lignin-digesting microorganisms to lignin-rich substrates being converted by BSFL. Moreover, a protein:fat:digestible carbohydrate ratio of 2:1:2 was hypothesized to benefit larval development.

We analysed species-level datasets representing Oribatida assemblages along a gradient of old-growth primary tropical forests, secondary forests, and plantation forests in Dong Nai Biosphere Reserve, Vietnam. We identified patterns in abundance, species richness and species assemblages of Oribatida, then applied taxonomic sufficiency approach to the datasets. Using three levels of higher-taxon aggregation, we evaluated whether aggregated datasets are useful in identifying ecological patterns, in comparison to species-level data. Species-level data on Oribatida assemblages clearly separated plantation forests from other forest environments; there was no significant separation between primary and secondary forests. Geographical structuring of species-level assemblages was significant, separating sites from two regions of the reserve. There was a significant concordance between multivariate ordination plots produced for species-level and aggregated (families, suborders/superfamilies) datasets, with Oribatida assemblages of plantation forests consistently separated from two other forest types. Mycobatidae (at family level) and Ceratozetoidea (at suborder/superfamily level) were indicators of plantation forests. The coarsest taxonomic resolution dataset with only four aggregated groups produced no separation of Oribatida assemblages by forest type or region. Moderate level of taxonomic aggregation applied to Oribatida community data did not cause great differences in patterns revealed by multivariate analysis, and therefore could be a valid approach to analysing the structure of tropical Oribatida assemblages. The taxonomic level of suborders and Brachypylina superfamilies appears to be the best compromise for ecological information and ease of identification. Two traits-body size and reproductive mode-were recorded for collected Oribatida species. Community-weighted mean trait value, modified Mason's index of functional divergence, and Rao's index of functional diversity were calculated for each trait in each of the sampled Oribatida assemblages. Sexual reproduction was a dominant reproductive mode in soil Oribatida and did not vary across forest types, indicating similar levels of resource limitation for this trait. For body size, lower functional divergence in plantation forests suggests less scope for niche differentiation and higher competition among different body sizes in this forest type. Use of functional traits can enhance and complement the analysis of Oribatida communities, but more data are needed on feeding- and diet-related traits in tropical Oribatida.

Biochar application has been recognised as an effective way to improve soil functions. In this study, we investigated how adding biochar as an amendment affects soil biological and physico-chemical properties in grazed pastures in a one-year field-based mesocosm experiment conducted on two contrasting soils – a sil-andic Andosol and a dystric Cambisol. Each site had two pastures managed under different nutrient and livestock practices: with and without effluent under dairy cow grazing on the Andosol, and with either nil or high phosphorus (P) fertiliser input under sheep grazing on the Cambisol. The soil amendment treatments were: (i) willow biochar produced at 350 °C (1% w/w); (ii) lime, added at the liming equivalence of the biochar application (positive control); (iii) no amendments (negative control). With few exceptions, after 12 months and compared with initial values and controls, biochar caused (i) an increase in soil total nitrogen (N) and Olsen P content (all P

The lace bug, Gargaphia decoris Drake (Hemiptera: Tingidae) is a biological control agent of the South American invasive tree Solanum mauritianum Scopoli (Solanaceae). Gargaphia decoris has been established with some success in New Zealand and South Africa. In this study, we used the climatic modelling software CLIMEX (Hearne Scientific Software Pty Ltd, Australia) to assess how current and future climatic conditions might influence the geographic distribution of the biocontrol agent in these countries and worldwide. CLIMEX parameters were based on experimental data and calibrated with distribution records from the insect’s native and non-native range. In its native range, our model predicts that G. decoris could expand its distribution into northern coastal regions of Brazil, with tropical dry summer or monsoon climate. It could also expand beyond its native range into other countries with temperate and subtropical climates, as well as several regions with tropical savanna, equatorial and monsoon climate in coastal regions. In New Zealand the greatest potential for further expansion is within the North Island, and in South Africa the expansion is limited to mostly coastal areas. In a future climate change scenario (A1B, CSIRO Mk3 2090), there is a predicted reduced distribution globally, especially for Asia, Africa, and the Americas. In Europe the climatic suitability for G. decoris will increase, with an expanded potential distribution. In South Africa the potential distribution is predicted to slightly reduce, while an expansion is predicted into the colder regions of New Zealand. These models provide a useful tool to inform future releases of G. decoris and to guide monitoring efforts within and beyond release areas.

We investigated diversity and community composition of microarthropods (Collembola and Oribatida) in a range of habitats in the high alpine zone of New Zealand’s South Island. We report the first comprehensive record of the fauna for the high alpine zone, and discuss habitat associations and related changes in community composition. A total of 51 species of Collembola and 70 species of Oribatida were collected. The microarthropod communities in alpine New Zealand had some structural traits in common with arcto-montane environments elsewhere in the world, but were not completely comparable. There was a minimal similarity between the faunal complexes of Oribatida and Collembola in alpine habitats and the known fauna of New Zealand, with high proportion of species new to science.

Larvae of the black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) are promising organisms to be used for organic waste bioconversion. Breeding BSF indoors has been suggested as a cost-effective approach for countries with long winters or low sunlight levels through the year. As the BSF mating is visually mediated, artificial illumination conditions are critical to a successful indoor breeding system. In this study, we tested four different types of artificial light sources for their effects on BSF mating success. They included: (1) a halogen lamp; (2) a combination of a white light-emitting diode (LED) lamp and a fluorescent ultra violet lamp; (3) a metal halide lamp, and (4) a specially designed light-emitting diode (BSFLED) lamp, whose design was based on the specific BSF adult visual spectral sensitivity. We determined the spectra of four artificial light sources, compared their spectral composition in relation to the BSF-visible spectrum, and compared their effects on the mating success of two different BSF colonies. BSFLED was the most energy efficient light source in spectral composition and led to the highest mating success in terms of the percentage of inseminated females and fertile clutches. Thus, BSFLED is the most suitable light source tested in our experiment for breeding BSF indoors. The colony effect and possible light flickering effect on BSF mating success were also detected. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Seven new species of the mite family Scutacaridae (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) are described from the alpine zone (1600–1900 m a.s.l.) of the Central Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand: Diversipes laticaudatus sp. nov., Scutacarus isotrichus sp. nov., S. incisus sp. nov., S . spinisetus sp. nov., S. cornutus sp. nov., S. novaezealandicus sp. nov., and S. crassus sp. nov. In addition, Imparipes woodi Mahunka, 1974 is recorded from the New Zealand for the first time and redescribed.

Cushion plants in alpine ecosystems act as nurse species, which modify and alleviate environmental conditions and positively influence the diversity and abundance of other organisms. Soil fauna in alpine environments should benefit from nurse plant facilitation, but this has not been investigated. We compared diversity, abundance, and community structure of soil microarthropods (Collembola, Oribatida, Mesostigmata, Prostigmata, Endeostigmata, and Astigmata) under cushion plants and in adjacent open microsites in high altitude patterned ground landscapes in New Zealand. We investigated how cushion plants influence environmental factors, and how environmental factors and species traits contribute to microarthropod community structure. The results show that cushion plants are a key in maintaining the biodiversity of soil microarthropods in the high alpine. Cushion plants maintain higher moisture and organic matter content in the soil, provide productive and structurally complex habitat, and mitigate...

A new monotypic genus Paraphyllodispus Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. (Acari: Pygmephoroidea: Microdispidae) with type species P. vulgaris sp. nov., and new species Phyllodispus undulatus Khaustov and Minor sp. nov. and Microdispus (Microdispus) montanus Khaustov and Minor sp. nov. are described from alpine zone (1600–1900 m a.s.l.) of the Central Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand. Dolichodispus angustus (Krczal, 1959) is also recorded from New Zealand for the first time.

The role of diet supplements (honey, water or no supplements) on egg maturation, oviposition strategy and longevity of the parasitic wasp Diaeretiella rapae McIntosh (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) is investigated. Parasitoids feed as larvae on hosts to acquire nutrition for growth and development, and further gain additional resources during their adult stage by feeding on either host or nonhost resources. The additional resources acquired by adults can help them to increase their reproductive activity or life expectancy, or both. Diaeretiella rapae females emerge with some developed eggs and no additional resources are required for egg maturation or successful oviposition. Females are able to oviposit and produce viable offspring immediately after emergence, and the number of eggs left in the ovaries of females decreases with subsequent oviposition, suggesting that ovigeny index of D. rapae is inclined towards pro-ovigenic status. When unmated males and females are offered honey solution, females are attracted to it, whereas males display courtship and make mating attempts but then feed on honey after mating. The oviposition efficiency of female D. rapae increases by 30% when they feed on honey compared with when starved. Honey-fed D. rapae adults live significantly longer (almost twice as long) than starved adults. Honey-fed females deprived of hosts live longer than those offered hosts regularly. The positive effects of honey-feeding on longevity are greater in females than in males. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that the provision of additional resources to adult D. rapae parasitoids could enhance their life expectancy and parasitism efficiency in biological control programmes.

Host plant cues are known to shape insect–host plant association in many insect groups. More pronounced associations are generally manifested in specialist herbivores, but little is known in generalist herbivores. We used a polyphagous native beetle from New Zealand, bronze beetle, Eucolaspis sp. ‘Hawkes Bay’ (Chrysomelidae: Eumolpinae) to explore the role of olfaction in locating host plants and local adaptation. We also tested the role of other cues in the degree of acceptance or rejection of hosts. Adult Eucolaspis beetles were attracted to fresh leaf volatiles from apple and blackberry (Rosaceae). Male and female beetles responded similarly to olfactory cues of host plants. An indication of evolutionary affiliation was observed in olfactory preferences of geographically isolated conspecific populations. We found that geographically isolated populations of the beetles differ in their olfactory responses and exhibit some degree of local adaptation. However, irrespective of geographical and ecological associations, blackberry was preferred over apple as a feeding plant, and another novel plant, bush lawyer (Rubus australis), was readily accepted by 53.25% of the tested beetles. We show that plant volatiles play an important role in host location by Eucolaspis, but the acceptance or rejection of a particular host could also involve visual and contact cues.

Sexual receptivity and mating behavior of the cabbage aphid parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae McIntosh were studied under laboratory conditions. When male and female D. rapae were paired females, males actively courted females, while females kept themselves away from males and displayed grooming behavior. Males became sexually active immediately after emergence and made mating attempts, whereas females took longer to become receptive to mating. Virgin males quickly detected female presence, resulting in a significant increase in the frequency of male courtship. Males encountered females within 5 min of pairing, and 90% of the males displayed courtship behavior by fanning their wings and chasing the female for mating. Before successful mating, males tended to approach females more often than females approached males. The time between pairing and mating in newly emerged females was longer than in 1-d-old females. The overall mating success in D. rapae was about 70%, and successful mating was largely dependent on females’ decision to mate. Unlike females, males remained sexually receptive after mating.

Three new species of oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida), Austrachipteria novazealandica sp. n. (Achipteriidae), Cultroribula otagoensis sp. n. (Astegistidae) and Microlamellarea minuta sp. n. (Lamellareidae), are described from New Zealand. The family Lamellareidae and the genus Microlamellarea are recorded for the first time in the fauna of this country. Austrachipteria novazealandica sp. n. is morphologically most similar to A. bidentata (Hammer, 1967), but differs from the latter by shorter interlamellar and bothridial setae and by posteriorly concave notogaster. Cultroribula otagoensis sp. n. is morphologically most similar to C. bicuspidata Mahunka, 1978, C. castriensis Mahunka, 1985, C. tropica Balogh, 1958 and C. zicsii Balogh & Mahunka, 1981, but differs from all listed species by lamellae being separated medially. Microlamellarea minuta sp. n. differs from two known species of the genus, M. coetzeeae Mahunka & Mahunka-Papp, 2011 and M. engelbrechti Coetzee, 1987, by the presence of minute interlamellar setae, leaf-shaped rostral setae and two pairs of anal setae. An identification key to known species of Microlamellarea is presented. Transfer of the genus Cultroribella from Astegistidae to Lamellareidae is proposed.

The giant willow aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus) is a large stem-feeding insect which forms dense colonies on infested plants. Since T. salignus is a new invasive species in New Zealand, we have a poor understanding of the plant chemical responses to aphid infestation. This study aimed to characterize the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions of fifteen different willow species and hybrids growing in New Zealand, and to evaluate changes in response to T. salignus attack in a field trial. Volatiles were collected using a headspace sampling technique and analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We found high variability in the volatile profiles of different species and hybrids, with (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and (E)-&beta, ocimene being the only common components to all blends. Taxonomically related plants showed an overlapping pattern of VOC emission, and there seemed to be a clear separation between shrub and tree willows. Responses to aphid infestation were variable, with only four species/hybrids showing changes in their total VOC emission, or that of at least one class of VOCs. A weak positive correlation between aphid population estimates and VOC emissions suggests that responses are species-specific and not infestation-dependent. These results reveal useful information about the interaction between T. salignus and its potential host plants for biological control and pest management purposes.

A six-month mesocosm experiment was conducted to investigate the joined effect of biochar and earthworms on soil properties and plant (white clover) growth in two contrasting soils – a dystric Cambisol and a sil-andic Andosol, both soils with pH-H2O

The discovery of a new genus of Heatherellidae in New Zealand has led us to revise this enigmatic family and its constituent genera. Aheatherella n. gen., based on A. mira n. sp. from the North Island of New Zealand, lacks some of the derived character states that link the Australian Heatherella, most notably the lack of sexual dimorphism in the dorsal shields and in the presence of peritremes in adult Aheatherella. Heatherella osleri n. sp. is described from New South Wales, extending the distribution of this genus beyond Queensland. New collection records of H. callimaulos and a key to the genera and species of the family are provided. We propose that the Heatherellidae—previously placed in its own cohort outside the Gamasina—are best considered a superfamily of gamasine mites within the subcohort Epicriiae.

Two new genera and four new species of the mite family Neopygmephoridae (Acari: Pygmephoroidea) are described from the alpine zone (1600–1900 m a.s.l.) of the Central Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand: Protobakerdania Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. with the type species Pygmephorus togatus Willmann, 1942, Neobakerdania Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. with the type species Neobakerdania pilosa Khaustov and Minor sp. nov., and the species Protobakerdania diseta Khaustov and Minor sp. nov., Troxodania minuta Khaustov and Minor sp. nov., and Bakerdania alpina Khaustov and Minor sp. nov. Eight species are moved to Protobakerdania Khaustov and Minor gen. nov. from Bakerdania Sasa, 1961: P. aperta (Rack and Kaliszewski, 1985) comb. nov., P. arvorum (Jacot, 1936) comb. nov., P. arvorum nodulosa (Mahunka, 1969b) comb. nov., P. baloghi (Mahunka, 1969b) comb. nov., P. crenata (Mahunka, 1969b) comb. nov., P. pristinus (Mahunka, 1968) comb. nov., P. randae (Sevastianov and Zahida Al Douri, 1989) comb. nov., and P. togatus (Willmann, 1942) comb. nov.

Two new species of oribatid mites of the monotypic genus Neophysobates (Oribatida, Tegoribatidae) from high alpine cushion fields in the Pisa Range, South Island, New Zealand are described. Neophysobates zealandicus n. sp. differs from N. monodactylus by the presence of bothridial seta with simple stalk and clavate, rounded distally head, a short adanal lyrifissure, and thickened seta pvo with attenuate tip on tarsus II. Neophysobates incrassatus n. sp. differs from N. monodactylus by the presence of bidactylous legs, three pairs of notogastral porose areas, thin rostral seta and tutorium without free tip. An identification key to the known species of Neophysobates is provided.

Parasitoid fitness depends on its ability to manipulate reproductive strategies when in competition. This study investigated the parasitism and sex allocation strategies of the parasitic wasp Diaeretiella rapae McIntosh at a range of host (Brevicoryne brassicae L.) and conspecific densities. The results suggest that D. rapae females adjust their progeny production and progeny sex ratio with changing competition. When foraging alone, female D. rapae parasitize larger number of B. brassicae nymphs when the number of available hosts is increased, but the overall proportion of parasitized hosts decreases with increase in host density. The proportion of female offspring also decreases with elevated host density. Increase in the number of female D. rapae foraging together increased total parasitism, but reduced relative contribution of each individual female. The number of female progeny decreased when multiple females competed for the same host. However, foraging experience in the presence of one or more conspecifics increased the parasitism rate and proportion of female progeny. Competing females were more active during oviposition and had shorter lives. The study suggests that both host and foundress (female parasitoid) densities have significant effect on progeny production, sex allocation, and longevity of foraging females.

A new species of Antarctozetes (Oribatida, Ceratozetoidea) is described from the soil in New Zealand based on adult morphology. Antarctozetes mariehammerae sp. nov. differs from Antarctozetes intermedius (Hammer, 1967) by the short rostral setae, very short stalks of bothridial setae, and bidentate lamellar cusps. A revised generic diagnosis is given, Antarctozetes is maintained in Punctoribatidae, although knowledge of juvenile instars is lacking. The relationship of Antarctozetes , Anellozetes, Africoribates and Kilimabates is discussed. Data on habitat and an identification key to known species of Antarctozetes in New Zealand are provided.

Due to an unfortunate turn of events, the statistical results for TS1 (F- and p-values) in Table 4 were displayed in reversed order. The correct representation of Table 4 is published here and should be treated as definitive.

The otocepheid oribatid mite genus Leptotocepheus Balogh, 1961 is recorded in the Australasian region for the first time. The taxonomic status of the genera Leptotocepheus Balogh, 1961 and Longocepheus Balogh & Mahunka,1966 is discussed, resulting in the recognition of Longocepheus as a subgenus (stat. nov.) of Leptotocepheus and the following recombinations: Leptotocepheus (Longocepheus) australis (Balogh & Mahunka, 1966) comb. nov., Leptotocepheus (Longocepheus) globosus (Grobler, 1995) comb. nov., Leptotocepheus (Longocepheus) longus (Balogh, 1961) comb. nov., Leptotocepheus (Longocepheus) youngai (Mahunka, 1984) comb. nov. A new species of Leptotocepheus (Longocepheus) is described from New Zealand, Leptotocepheus (Longocepheus) neozealandicus sp. nov., which differs from other species of the subgenus by the presence of short, slightly developed prodorsal costulae. Revised generic and subgeneric diagnoses, an identification key and distributions for the known taxa of Leptotocepheus are presented.

A new species of the genus Belloppia (Oribatida, Oppiidae) is described from New Zealand; Belloppia bella sp. nov. differs from all species of the genus by the presence of a distal row of clear barbs on the bothridial heads and the median part of the tripartite rostrum strongly protruding and distinctly longer than the lateral parts. Supplementary descriptions for two species, Belloppia wallworki Hammer, 1968 and B. shealsi Hammer, 1968 are given based on new material from New Zealand. A revised generic diagnosis and an identification key to known species of Belloppia are presented.

A method of marking wildlife for mark–recapture studies should be long lasting, dependable and discreet. The use of radio frequency identification in studies of hard-shelled gastropods is a promising technique for recognition of individuals. Passive integrated transponders (PIT tags) can be attached to snails with easy-to-use adhesives (glues). However, anecdotal evidence suggests that the use of adhesives may attract predatory rats to tagged snails. In this study, we presented ship rats with empty Powelliphanta traversi tararuaensis land snails with PIT tags attached using three different adhesives. We measured the number and duration of any behavioural interactions associated with foraging directed towards different adhesives. We found that rats interacted more with shells that had Loctite® adhesive, and recommend that this glue should be used with caution in a field setting, as it may predispose marked snails to depredation by rats. Selleys Liquid Nails® appears to be the best adhesive choice ...

Mating and oviposition complement each other in parasitoid reproduction; delay in either of these activities has disparate consequences for the fitness of the parasitoid. We investigated the effects of mating and oviposition delay on parasitism rate and progeny sex ratio in a parasitic wasp Diaeretiella rapae. Egg dynamics in the ovaries of females of different ages, and females which completed different numbers of oviposition bouts were also examined. Delay in mating and oviposition adversely affected reproductive performance of both male and female D. rapae. Delayed oviposition resulted in reduced parasitism rates in both mated and unmated females. The progeny sex ratio was female-biased, but the proportion of female offspring decreased towards the end of D. rapae life. Although females emerged with developed eggs, the egg load in the ovaries of unmated and naive females initially increased then continuously decreased with age, suggesting partial resorption of eggs towards the end of a females life. Oviposition rate of unmated females was low before mating. The extent of mating delay experienced by females affected the sex ratio of their progeny, causing overproduction of males. Delayed mating did not affect the courting capacity of males, but reduced the number of their offspring and proportion of female offspring. The duration of copulation was longer in older males. The results of this study clearly indicate the importance of parasitoid age in biological control programmes, and suggests the use of 1–2 days old D. rapae for best results.

Eucolaspis sp. “Hawke's Bay” (Chrysomelidae: Eumolpinae) is a pest that inflicts huge economic loss in many organic apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchards in New Zealand. The timing of control methods for this pest has been shown to be crucial for success. To aid in planning control programs, we studied threshold temperature and degree-days required for the development of Eucolaspis sp. “Hawke's Bay” pupae and modeled adult emergence in the field. Pupal development was observed at three constant temperatures. Pupae required 237.0 ± 21.67 degree-days above lower threshold temperature of 4.7°C ± 0.89°C to develop into adults. The emergence of adults was modeled with these thermal values and the model was tested for accuracy with field data. The model performed well with a precision of ±4 d. The proposed phenology model has wide applicability in monitoring and planning pest control measures.

We investigated communities of oribatid mites in five peat bogs in the north-west of the East European plain. We aimed to determine the extent to which geographic factors (latitude, separation distance), local environment (Sphagnum moss species, ground water level, biogeochemistry) and local habitat complexity (diversity of vascular plants and bryophytes in the surrounding plant community) influence diversity and community composition of Oribatida. There was a significant north-to-south increase in Oribatida abundance. In the variance partitioning, spatial factors explained 33.1 % of variability in abundance across samples; none of the environmental factors were significant. Across all bogs, Oribatida species richness and community composition were similar in Sphagnum rubellum and Sphagnum magellanicum, but significantly different and less diverse in Sphagnum cuspidatum. Sphagnum microhabitat explained 52.2 % of variability in Oribatida species richness, whereas spatial variables explained only 8.7 %. There was no distance decay in community similarity between bogs with increased geographical distance. The environmental variables explained 34.9 % of the variance in community structure, with vascular plants diversity, bryophytes diversity, and ground water level all contributing significantly; spatial variables explained 15.1 % of the total variance. Overall, only 50 % of the Oribatida community variance was explained by the spatial structure and environmental variables. We discuss relative importance of spatial and local environmental factors, and make general inferences about the formation of fauna in Sphagnum bogs.

Three new species of oribatid mites of the family Punctoribatidae (Acari, Oribatida) are described from alpine bogs of the Central Otago region in the South Island of New Zealand. Macrogena hexasetosa sp. nov. is morphologically most similar to M. brevisensilla ErmilovMinor, 2015, however, it differs from the latter by larger body size, the presence of six pairs of genital setae, notogastral and ano-adanal setae of medium size, setiform rostral setae, narrower tutorial cusps, the absence of antero-ventral teeth on genua I, II and femora II, and by the absence of striae on the subcapitular mentum. Porallozetes badamdorji sp. nov. differs from the type species-P. dispar (Hammer, 1973)-by larger body length, the presence of interlamellar setae, short and clavate bothridial setae, anterior notogastral margin, notogastral setae of medium size, semi-oval dorsophragmata, and by the position of notogastral porose areas A2 posteriorly to A1. Safrobates gerdi sp. nov. differs from the type species-S. miniporus Mahunka, 1989-by larger body size, the presence of setiform rostral setae, and by notogastral setae of medium length. Porallozetes and Safrobates are recorded in New Zealand for the first time. Generic diagnoses for Macrogena, Porallozetes and Safrobates are given.

Mating frequency and the amount of sperm transferred during mating have important consequences on progeny sex ratio and fitness of haplodiploid insects. Production of female offspring may be limited by the availability of sperm for fertilizing eggs. This study examined multiple mating and its effect on fitness of the cabbage aphid parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae McIntosh (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). Female D. rapae mated once, whereas males mated with on average more than three females in a single day. The minimum time lag between two consecutive matings by a male was 3 min, and the maximum number of matings a male achieved in a day was eight. Sperm depletion occurred as a consequence of multiple mating in D. rapae. The number of daughters produced by females that mated with multiple-mated males was negatively correlated with the number of matings achieved by these males. Similarly, the proportion of female progeny decreased in females that mated with males that had already mated three times. Although the proportion of female progeny resulting from multiple mating decreased, the decrease was quicker when the mating occurred on the same day than when the matings occurred once per day over several days. Mating success of males initially increased after the first mating, but then males became ‘exhausted’ in later matings; their mating success decreased with the number of prior matings. The fertility of females was affected by mating with multiple-mated males. The study suggests that male mating history affects the fitness of male and female D. rapae.

Pastoral agriculture influences both the food resources available for the soil food-web, and soil physical conditions. This study explored the relationship between food resources, soil physical condition, and soil invertebrates in 42 grazed pastures across different soils in New Zealand. The response of invertebrates to food resources and soil physical conditions was associated with both the size class of invertebrates (i.e., earthworm vs. nematode) and functional group (i.e., bacterial-feeding vs. plant-feeding). Changes in soil pore size, a surrogate for habitable pores, was correlated with the invertebrate community across the soils in the study, more so than potential food resources from plant litter and dung calculated from livestock numbers. Overall, management practices which improve habitable pores in the soil are beneficial not only for plant growth, but also for sustaining the diversity and abundance of the biological community which contribute to the soil services required for pasture agriculture. An invertebrate indicator, that included the abundance thresholds of each invertebrate group at which their activity would be insufficient to sustain the soil processes, would give land managers a tool to identify deficiencies in the invertebrate community and assess the implications of these deficiencies on the ability of the soil to provide the necessary ecosystem services.

Soil invertebrates have limited defences against moisture stress but little is understood of how irrigation influences their community. This paper investigates the influence of five summer irrigation schedules on earthworms over a 15-month period in a long-term pasture irrigation study. The influence of the two extreme rates of irrigation on other soil invertebrates was also examined. The effects of frequent drought periods under dryland pasture favoured small and short-lived nematodes and oribatids. During wetter months, earthworm abundances were similar between dryland and irrigated treatments, while earthworms tended to migrate down the soil profile and aestivate in response to soil water deficits during summer. The higher abundance of earthworms in the summer months under irrigation may partly explain the lower soil carbon found under irrigation, due to enhanced rates of soil organic matter turnover, despite higher primary production and inputs of carbon. It is thus important to consider irri...

1. The reproductive fitness of a parasitoid depends on its mating and ovipositing success. Virgin haplodiploid females can reproduce, but produce only males, and may diminish fitness by producing more male offspring than required. Therefore, females must decide on whether to mate or oviposit first. 2. This study was conducted to assess the mating versus ovipositing decision and its impact on the reproductive fitness of Diaeretiella rapae (Hymenoptera: Aphididae), an endoparasitoid of the cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae). 3. When newly emerged females were given a choice between mating and ovipositing, about 62% of D. rapae females preferred to mate before ovipositing. Those females who oviposited before mating parasitised only 10% of the available aphids. After mating, females superparasitised their hosts with fertilised eggs, which resulted in a highly female-biased sex ratio in the offspring. 4. Mating success was very high (91%) in the presence of hosts (cabbage aphid nymphs) compared with that in the absence of aphids. However, mating success was not influenced by the quality (size) of the hosts present in the mating arena, despite a parasitoid preference for larger hosts during oviposition. The time between pairing and mating was also shorter in the presence of host aphids. The mean number of aphids parasitised and the parasitism rate were significantly greater after mating.

Host age-dependent fitness of Diaeretiella rapae was studied on cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae. When given a choice of nymphs of four different ages (1, 3, 5 and 7 days), females showed a strong preference for oviposition in older nymphs, which were also the largest in the body size, and left the majority of younger nymphs unparasitised. More than 70% of offspring emerged from 5-day and 7-day old parasitised nymphs. Parasitoids develop faster in older hosts than in younger hosts. Development time of males was shorter than females in older hosts, but the development time of males and females was similar in younger hosts. The body size of adult D. rapae was positively correlated with the age of the hosts in which they developed. The sex ratio of offspring was found to be female-biased. A higher proportion of females emerged from older hosts. D. rapae females emerged from older hosts lived significantly longer. The potential fecundity of the females emerged from older (larger in body size) hosts was significantly greater than of those emerged from younger hosts with smaller bodies. Results suggest that D. rapae preferred older hosts to maximise the reproductive fitness gain. The oviposition strategy of D. rapae is discussed in the context of efficiency of this parasitoid in biological control programmes.

Soil invertebrates are coming under increasing pressure as pastoral agriculture is intensified. Grazing livestock affects the soil invertebrate community by impacting on the physical habitat through treading, and on nutrient cycling through dung and urine return. In this study the sensitivity of soil invertebrates to livestock was examined by quantifying the abundance and diversity of invertebrates in the grazed pasture and comparing it with those under adjacent permanent fence lines on three different soil types at three locations. Resilience of the invertebrate communities was also explored by sampling mown, fertilised and irrigated plots within grazed pastures, where livestock had been excluded for the previous three years. Of the soil invertebrates the predatory and omnivorous nematodes, Oribatida and predatory macrofauna were the most sensitive to grazing livestock. In comparison, earthworms with their higher mobility and ability to burrow were more resistant to livestock. The combined effect of removing treading pressure and moisture stress in the fenced plots appeared to be the major factors influencing invertebrate recovery, rather than the quantity and quality of food entering the soil food-web as influenced by fertiliser application. Earthworms, exhibited the greatest resilience, doubling in abundance in the mown and irrigated plots. Nematodes were more resilient than the larger and longer-lived Oribatida. The oribatid community in the irrigated and mown plots were limited in both diversity and abundance in comparison to the community under the fence line. That the vulnerability of soil invertebrates to livestock treading was consistent at all three sites would suggest that organism characteristics (i.e., life-history and ability to move through the soil) and trophic interactions are important in structuring the biological community.