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Recently, we introduced a Portable HAndheld Spectral Reflection (PHASR) Scanner to allow THz Time-Domain Spectroscopic (THz-TDS) imaging in clinical and industrial settings using a fiber-coupled and alignment-free telecentric beam steering design. The key limitations of the version 1.0 of the PHASR Scanner were its field-of-view and speed of time-domain trace acquisition. In this paper, we address these limitations by introducing a heliostat geometry for beam scanning to achieve an extended field-of-view, and by reconfiguring the Asynchronous OPtical Sampling (ASOPS) system to perform Electronically Controlled OPtical Sampling (ECOPS) measurements. The former change improved the deflection range of the beam, while also drastically reducing the coupling of the two scanning axes, the combination of which resulted in a larger than four-fold increase in the FOV area. The latter change significantly improves the acquisition speed and frequency domain performance simultaneously by improving measurement efficiency. To accomplish this, we characterized the non-linear time-axis sampling behavior of the electro-mechanical system in the ECOPS mode. We proposed methods to model and correct the non-linear time-axis distortions and tested the performance of the high-speed ECOPS trace acquisition. Therefore, here we introduce the PHASR Scanner version 2.0, which is capable of imaging a 40×27 mm

Turbid media, made of wavelength-scale inhomogeneous particles, can give rise to many significant imaging and spectroscopy challenges. The random variation of the refractive index within such media distorts the spherical wavefronts, resulting in smeared and speckly images. The scattering-induced artifacts can obscure the characteristic spectral fingerprints of the chemicals in a sample. This in turn prevents accurate chemical imaging and characterization of the materials cloaked with a diffusive medium. In this work, we present a novel computational technique for creating spatially- and spectrally-resolved chemical maps through a diffusive cloak using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. We use the maximal overlap discrete wavelet transform to obtain a multiresolution spectral decomposition of THz extinction coefficients. We define a new spectroscopic concept dubbed the “bimodality coefficient spectrum” using the skewness and kurtosis of the spectral images. We demonstrate that broadband wavelet-based reconstruction of the bimodality coefficient spectrum can resolve the signature resonant frequencies through the scattering layers. Additionally, we show that our approach can achieve spectral images with diffraction-limited resolution. This technique can be used for stand-off characterization of materials and spectral imaging in nondestructive testing and biological applications.

The initial assessment of the depth of a burn injury during triage forms the basis for determination of the course of the clinical treatment plan. However, severe skin burns are highly dynamic and hard to predict. This results in a low accuracy rate of about 60% to 75% in the diagnosis of partial-thickness burns in the acute post-burn period. Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) has demonstrated a significant potential for non-invasive and timely estimation of the burn severity. Here, we describe a methodology for the measurement and numerical modeling of the dielectric permittivity of the in vivo porcine skin burns. We use the double Debye dielectric relaxation theory to model the permittivity of the burned tissue. We further investigate the origins of dielectric contrast between the burns of various severity, as determined histologically based on the percentage of the burned dermis, using the empirical Debye parameters. We demonstrate that the five parameters of the double Debye model can form an artificial neural network classification algorithm capable of automatic diagnosis of the severity of the burn injuries, and predicting its ultimate wound healing outcome by forecasting its re-epithelialization status in 28 days. Our results demonstrate that the Debye dielectric parameters provide a physics-based approach for the extraction of the biomedical diagnostic markers from the broadband THz pulses. This method can significantly boost dimensionality reduction of THz training data in artificial intelligence models and streamline machine learning algorithms.

The endothelial layer of the cornea plays a critical role in regulating its hydration by actively controlling fluid intake in the tissue via transporting the excess fluid out to the aqueous humor. A damaged corneal endothelial layer leads to perturbations in tissue hydration and edema, which can impact corneal transparency and visual acuity. We utilized a non-contact terahertz (THz) scanner designed for imaging spherical targets to discriminate between ex vivo corneal samples with intact and damaged endothelial layers. To create varying grades of corneal edema, the intraocular pressures of the whole porcine eye globe samples were increased to either 25, 35 or 45 mmHg for 4 hours before returning to normal pressure levels at 15 mmHg for the remaining 4 hours. Changes in tissue hydration were assessed by differences in spectral slopes between 0.4 to 0.8 THz. Our results indicate that the THz response of corneal samples is varied according to the differences in the endothelial cell density. We show that this spectroscopic difference is statistically significant and can be used to assess the intactness of the endothelial layer.

Significance: Severe burn injuries cause significant hypermetabolic alterations that are highly dynamic, hard to predict, and require acute and critical care. The clinical assessments of the severity of burn injuries are highly subjective and have been reported to be inaccurate consistently. Therefore, the utilization of other imaging modalities is crucial to reach an objective and accurate burn assessment modality. Aim: We describe a non-invasive technique using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) and the wavelet packet Shannon entropy to automatically estimate the burn depth and predict the wound healing outcome of the thermal burn injuries. Approach: We created forty burn injuries of different severity grades in two porcine models using scald and contact methods of infliction. We used our THz Portable Handheld Spectral Reflection (PHASR) Scanner to obtain the in vivo THz-TDS images. We used the energy to Shannon entropy ratio of the wavelet packet coefficients of the THz-TDS waveforms on Day 0 to create supervised support vector machine (SVM) classification models. Histological20 assessments of the burn biopsies serve as the ground truth. Results: We achieved an accuracy rate of 94.7% in predicting the wound healing outcome, as determined by histological measurement of the re-epithelialization rate on Day 28 post-burn induction, using the THz-TDS measurements obtained on Day 0. Furthermore, we report the accuracy rates of 89%, 87.1%, and 87.6% in automatic diagnosis of the superficial partial-thickness, deep partial-thickness, and full-thickness burns, respectively, using a multiclass SVM model. Conclusions: The THz PHASR Scanner promises a robust, high-speed, and accurate diagnostic modality to improve the clinical triage of burns and their management.

Turbid media are usually made of wavelength-scale inhomogeneous granular particles, which give rise to many significant imaging challenges. The random variation of the refractive index within such media distorts the spherical beam wavefronts, resulting in smeared and speckly images. The light scattering also limits the depth of focus to only few multiples of the scattering mean free path. Additionally, the scattering-induced spectral artifacts obscure the fingerprints of the chemicals in a sample, preventing accurate imaging and identification of the materials cloaked under a highly diffusive medium. We present the implementation of a multiresolution spectral analysis technique by decomposing the reflection spectrum using a wavelet transform approach for creating spatially- and spectrally-resolved chemical maps through such scattering media. We define a new spectroscopic concept, dubbed the "bimodality coefficient spectrum" of a sample, and show that the broadband wavelet-based reconstruction of the bimodality coefficient spectrum can resolve the signature resonant frequencies through scattering layers. We show that our new approach can achieve spectral images with diffraction-limited resolution. This technique can be used for stand-off detection of materials and spectral imaging in nondestructive testing and biological applications.

There are many effective medium models that accurately describe the dielectric properties of mixtures. However, these models assume that the components are non-interacting. This assumption is not valid for solutions of polar liquids, resulting in significant deviations between the measured and theoretically predicted values of the complex index of refraction of the mixtures. We present three effective medium theories by expanding the well-known Debye relaxation model for solutions of polar liquids in the terahertz (THz) regime. The new effective medium models proposed in this paper predict the individual relaxation Debye parameters based on the cooperative motion dynamics and self-associative properties of each mixture, and therefore explain the deviation of the dielectric functions of the solutions from the traditional effective medium models. These models are verified through reflection measurements of four alcohol-water solutions acquired through THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). Compared to the current mixed medium models, the new effective Debye theorem predicts the dielectric properties of polar solutions more accurately and has the potential to explain inter-species mixing schemes and interactions.

We describe the application of the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) in extracting the characteristic absorption signatures of materials from terahertz reflection spectra. We compare the performance of different mother wavelets, including Daubechies, least asymmetric (LA), and Coiflet, based on their phase and gain functions and filter lengths. We show that the phase functions of the wavelet and scaling filters result in spectral shifts to the absorption lines in the wavelet domain. We provide a solution by calculating advancement coefficients necessary to achieve effective zero-phase-function DWT. We demonstrate the utility of this signal processing technique using $\alpha$ -lactose monohydrate/polyethylene samples with different levels of rough surface scattering. In all cases, the DWT-based algorithm successfully extracts resonant signatures at 0.53 and 1.38 THz, even when they are obscured by the rough surface scattering effects. The DWT analysis with accompanying phase corrections can be utilized as a robust technique for material identification in nondestructive evaluation using terahertz spectroscopy.

Whether the depth and healing of scalds and contact burns are similar is controversial. Due to water's greater heat capacity, we hypothesized that when exposed to similar temperatures and durations of exposure, burns caused by hot water would be deeper than those caused by contact with hot metal. Forty standardized burns were created in two anesthetized female domestic pigs using a brass bar or circulating heated water. In one pig, the temperature was kept constant (95°C) while the duration of exposure varied (5, 10, 15 seconds) In the second pig, the exposure time was kept constant (10 seconds) while the temperature of exposure varied (70°C, 80°C, 98°C). Periodic punch biopsies were taken to determine burn depth immediately after injury, percentage burns reepithelialized within 21 days, and depth of scar at 28 days. The analysis was performed using analysis of variance. When the temperature was held constant, duration of exposure (5, 10, and 15 seconds) was associated with scar depth (2.1 vs 3.8 vs 5.0 mm, respectively, P = 0.001) but not with burn depth (2.0 vs 2.2 vs 2.3 mm, respectively, P = 0.10). When exposure duration was held constant, temperature (70°C, 80°C, 98°C) was associated with scar depth (0.6 vs 1.7 vs 3.6, P < 0.001) but not with burn depth (1.2 vs 1.5 vs 1.7 mm, respectively, P = 0.21). Burn depths were greater for scald than contact burns although not significantly greater. After controlling for temperature, the difference in scar depth between scalds and contact burns was statistically significant (marginal means 3.0 for contact burns, 4.3 for scalds, P = 0.008). We conclude that burns created in swine with circulating hot water result in deeper scars than those created by contact with a brass bar when controlling for temperature and duration of exposure.

We present an automatic classification strategy for early and accurate assessment of burn injuries using terahertz (THz) time-domain spectroscopic imaging. Burn injuries of different severity grades, representing superficial partial-thickness (SPT), deep partial-thickness (DPT), and full-thickness (FT) wounds, were created by a standardized porcine scald model. THz spectroscopic imaging was performed using our new fiber-coupled Portable HAndheld Spectral Reflection Scanner, incorporating a telecentric beam steering configuration and an f-$$\theta$$ θ scanning lens. ASynchronous Optical Sampling in a dual-fiber-laser THz spectrometer with 100 MHz repetition rate enabled high-speed spectroscopic measurements. Given twenty-four different samples composed of ten scald and ten contact burns and four healthy samples, supervised machine learning algorithms using THz-TDS spectra achieved areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves of 0.88, 0.93, and 0.93 when differentiating between SPT, DPT, and FT burns, respectively, as determined by independent histological assessments. These results show the potential utility of our new broadband THz PHASR Scanner for early and accurate triage of burn injuries.

Wavelet transform is an important tool in the computational signal processing of terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) measurements. Despite its prevalence, the effects of using different forms of wavelet transforms in THz-TDS studies have not been investigated. In this paper, we explore the implications of using the maximal overlap discrete wavelet transform (MODWT) versus the well-known discrete wavelet transform (DWT). We demonstrate that the spectroscopic features extracted using DWT can vary over different overlapping frequency ranges. On the contrary, MODWT is translation-invariant and results in identical features, regardless of the spectral range used for its implementation.We also demonstrate that the details coefficients obtained by the multiresolution analysis (MRA) using MODWT are associated with zero-phase filters. In contrast, DWT details coefficients suffer from misalignments originated from the down- and upsampling operations in DWT pyramid algorithm. Such misalignments have adverse effects when it is critical to retain the exact location of the absorption lines. We study the differences of DWT and MODWT both analytically and experimentally, using reflection THz-TDS measurements of α-lactose monohydrate. This manuscript can guide the researchers to select the right wavelet analysis tool for their specific application of the THz spectroscopy.

We present an automatic classification strategy for early and accurate assessment of burn injuries using terahertz (THz) time-domain spectroscopic imaging. Burn injuries of different severity grades, representing superficial partial-thickness (SPT), deep partial-thickness (DPT), and full-thickness (FT) wounds, were created by a standardized porcine scald model. THz spectroscopic imaging was performed using our new fiber-coupled Portable HAndheld Spectral Reflection (PHASR) scanner, incorporating a telecentric beam steering configuration and an f-\theta scanning lens. ASynchronous Optical Sampling (ASOPS) in a dual-fiber-laser THz spectrometer with 100 MHz repetition rate enabled high-speed spectroscopic measurements. Given twenty-four different samples composed of ten scald and ten contact burns and four healthy samples, supervised machine learning algorithms using THz-TDS spectra achieved areas under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of 0.88, 0.93, and 0.93 when differentiating between SPT, DPT, and FT burns, respectively, as determined by independent histological assessments. These results show the potential utility of our new broadband THz PHASR scanner for early and accurate triage of burn injuries.

We report on a time-domain polarimetry (TDP) system for generating and detecting broadband terahertz (THz) waves of different polarization angles. We generate THz waves from two-color laser filaments and determine their polarization states with a detection bandwidth of up to 8 THz using a spinning gallium phosphide crystal. The polarization of THz emission can be controlled by adjusting the position and tilt angle of the β-barium borate crystal. We characterize the precision of this system for polarimetric measurements at fixed time delay to be [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] for complete time-domain waveforms. We also demonstrate the feasibility of our TDP system by measuring broadband optical properties of anisotropic samples in both transmission and reflection geometries. The THz-TDP technique can be easily integrated in conventional THz time-domain spectroscopy setups using nonlinear crystal detectors.

Speckle patterns observed in coherent optical imaging reflect important characteristic information of the scattering object. To capture speckle patterns, angular resolved or oblique illumination geometries are usually employed in combination with Rayleigh statistical models. We present a portable and handheld 2-channel polarization-sensitive imaging instrument to directly resolve terahertz (THz) speckle fields in a collocated telecentric back-scattering geometry. The polarization state of the THz light is measured using two orthogonal photoconductive antennas and can be presented in the form of the Stokes vectors of the THz beam upon interaction with the sample. We report on the validation of the method in surface scattering from gold-coated sandpapers, demonstrating a strong dependence of the polarization state on the surface roughness and the frequency of the broadband THz illumination. We also demonstrate non-Rayleigh first-order and second-order statistical parameters, such as degree of polarization uniformity (DOPU) and phase difference, for quantifying the randomness of polarization. This technique provides a fast method for broadband THz polarimetric measurement in the field and has the potential for detecting light depolarization in applications ranging from biomedical imaging to non-destructive testing.

Thermal injuries can occur due to direct exposure to hot objects or liquids, flames, electricity, solar energy and several other sources. If the resulting injury is a deep partial thickness burn, the accuracy of a physician’s clinical assessment is as low as 50-76% in determining the healing outcome. In this study, we show that the Terahertz Portable Handheld Spectral Reflection (THz-PHASR) Scanner combined with a deep neural network classification algorithm can accurately differentiate between partial-, deep partial-, and full-thickness burns 1-hour post injury, regardless of the etiology, scanner geometry, or THz spectroscopy sampling method (ROC-AUC = 91%, 88%, and 86%, respectively). The neural network diagnostic method simplifies the classification process by directly using the pre-processed THz spectra and removing the need for any hyperspectral feature extraction. Our results show that deep learning methods based on THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) measurements can be used to guide clinical treatment plans based on objective and accurate classification of burn injuries.

We report on our fast THz PHASR scanner capable of achieving time-domain measurements at a 2600 trace/second rate over a 75-picosecond sampling window by operating ECOPS technique using ASOPS hardware.

We report on measuring the permittivity of in vivo burn injuries in a swine model using our new PHASR scanner and show that the extracted Debye parameters can differentiate between grades of burn injuries accurately (p < 0.05).

We present an automatic classification strategy for early and accurate assessment of burn injuries using terahertz (THz) time-domain spectroscopic imaging. Burn injuries of different severity grades, representing superficial partial-thickness (SPT), deep partial-thickness (DPT), and full-thickness (FT) wounds, were created by a standardized porcine scald model. THz spectroscopic imaging was performed using our new fiber-coupled Portable HAndheld Spectral Reflection Scanner, incorporating a telecentric beam steering configuration and an f-[Formula: see text] scanning lens. ASynchronous Optical Sampling in a dual-fiber-laser THz spectrometer with 100 MHz repetition rate enabled high-speed spectroscopic measurements. Given twenty-four different samples composed of ten scald and ten contact burns and four healthy samples, supervised machine learning algorithms using THz-TDS spectra achieved areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves of 0.88, 0.93, and 0.93 when differentiating between SPT, DPT, and FT burns, respectively, as determined by independent histological assessments. These results show the potential utility of our new broadband THz PHASR Scanner for early and accurate triage of burn injuries.

Patients arrive in burn centers with many etiologies of burn incidence (such as scald, contact, flame, steam, etc.). Treatment of these injuries depends on the burn depth and surface area of these burns. Moreover, earlier diagnosis and treatment of these burns lead to better patient outcomes. In this study, we show that THz-TDS imaging with a neural network classification algorithm can reproducibly classify burns, independent of their etiology, with an ROC-AUC of 88% in a porcine model.

We demonstrate spectroscopic THz reflection imaging through turbid media. We show that the detection of resonant features in the extinction spectrum can be made possible using multiresolution analysis based on wavelet transforms. We determine that the spatial resolution of this imaging technique is only diffraction limited.

The accuracy of clinical assessment of partial-thickness burn injuries has remained as low as 60% in the first few days post burn induction. Here, we present the implementation of a wavelet Shannon entropy technique for noninvasive characterization of burn injuries in an in vivo porcine burn study. Supervised machine learning using the support vector machines (SVM) based on the energy to Shannon entropy ratio (ESER) in the wavelet packet transform of the THz-TDS waveform yielded accuracy rates above 91% in differentiation between superficial, intermediate, and full-thickness burn categories.

A THz-TDS corneal 3D scanner was designed and used to investigate tissue water content perturbations caused by elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). We show that the correlation between increased THz amplitude in the 0.3 and 0.6 THz and IOP levels can be used for non-contact measurement of the IOP. The SEM images confirmed degrees of damage to the endothelial layer.

Current terahertz (THz) spectroscopy techniques only use the coherent light beam for spectral imaging. In the presence of electromagnetic scattering, however, the scattering-mitigated incoherent beams allow for flexible emitter-detector geometries, which enable applications such as seeing through turbid media. Despite this potential, THz spectroscopy using diffuse waves has not been demonstrated. The main obstacles are the very poor signal to noise ratios of the diffused fields and the resonance-like spectral artifacts due to multiple Mie scattering events that obscure the material absorption signatures. In this work, we demonstrate diffuse THz spectroscopy of a heterogeneous sample through turbid media using a novel technique based on the wavelet multiresolution analysis and the bimodality coefficient spectrum, which we define here for the first time using the skewness and kurtosis of the spectral images. The proposed method yields broadband and simultaneous material characterization at detection angles as high as 90o with respect to the incident beam. We determined the accuracy of the wavelet-based diffuse spectroscopy at oblique detection angles, by evaluating the area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves, to be higher than 95%. This technique is agnostic to any a priori information on the spectral signatures of the sample materials or the characteristics of the scattering medium, and can be expanded for other broadband spectroscopic modalities.

Topographical abnormality in corneal tissue is a common diagnostic marker for many eye diseases and injuries. Using an asynchronous optical sampling terahertz time-domain spectroscopy setup, we developed a non-contact and normal-incidence imaging system to measure topographic changes along the surface of spherical samples. We obtained orthogonal 1D scans of calibration spheres to evaluate the minimum axial resolution of our system. We determined the axial and spatial resolution of the scanner using 3D-printed spherical cross and Boehler star targets. Furthermore, we characterized the asymmetrical performance of the scanner due to the use of an off-axis parabolic mirror. Finally, we developed an edge-detection filter to aid with improving the topographic scans. We showed that when imaging samples were comparable in size to the human cornea, the axial and spherical spatial resolutions were limited to about 15 µm ( ∼ λ / 67 ) and 1 mm, respectively.

Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) results in endothelial layer damage that can induce corneal hydration perturbations. We investigated the potential of terahertz spectroscopy in measuring the IOP levels through mapping corneal water content. We controlled the IOP levels in ex vivo rabbit and porcine eye samples while monitoring the change in corneal hydration using a terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) scanner. Our results showed a statistically significant increase in the THz reflectivity between 0.4 and 0.6 THz corresponding to the increase in the IOP. Endothelial layer damage was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the corneal biopsy samples. Our empirical results indicate that the THz-TDS can be used to track IOP levels through the changes in corneal hydration.

Endothelial damage related to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) was investigated using a THz corneal scanner. An increase in the IOP in rabbit and porcine eyes corresponded to increased THz reflectivity. Endothelial damage was confirmed independently using SEM.

We present an upgraded handheld THz-TDS polarimetric scanner for use in clinical settings and nondestructive testing applications. We have converted an ASOPS system to perform ECOPS time-domain data acquisition to improve measurement rate to about 800 Hz, resulting in TDS measurement time of 1.25 ms. Moreover, the addition of a second detection channel allows co- and cross-polarization elements of the reflected beam to be measured. We present polarization-sensitive imaging results from partial thickness in vivo porcine burns.

Dielectric heterogeneity in addition to wavelength-scale air voids and granular particles lead to significant electromagnetic scattering in the transmission-mode THz-TDS. These scattering processes result in the distorted or obscured resonant signatures, a frequency-dependent extinction loss, and the appearance of anomalous spectral artifacts, imposing severe challenges on the real-world automatic material characterization schemes. In this work, we use a combination of the wavelet multiresolution analysis, the principal component analysis, and the bimodality coefficient to simultaneously identify all the resonant frequencies of a heterogeneous sample embedded beneath a highly scattering turbid medium.

THz imaging is a promising modality to improve the standard-of-care for patients with partial thickness burn injuries. In this study, we show the accuracy and efficacy of THz-TDSI for characterizing and monitoring burn wounds in a porcine model. We show that our new THz hyperspectral metric, $Z$ , can differentiate between partial-thickness burns against their histologically determined depths of injury ( $p ).

To solve the phase ambiguity problem in the THz reflection spectroscopy, current material parameter extraction methods require the sample to make an ideal contact with an optically transparent window. We treat these samples as a multilayer system and present a new algorithm that estimates the thickness of the potential air gap and calculates the complex refractive index of the samples.

The rough surface scattering in the reflection-mode THz-TDS can result in inaccurate phase spectra, reduced signal to noise ratios, distorted or obscured resonant fingerprints, and the appearance of anomalous spectral artifacts. In this work, we demonstrate the implementation of a wavelet shrinkage technique for the retrieval of obscured resonant frequencies from the derivative of THz reflectivity of solid dielectric materials. We examine the robustness of this technique over controlled levels of rough surface scattering created using sandpapers of different grits on sample disks made from 4-aminobenzoic acid (PABA).

The accuracy of current burn triage techniques has remained between 50-70%. Accordingly, there is a significant clinical need for the quantitative and accurate assessment of partial-thickness burn injuries. Porcine skin represents the closest animal model to human skin, and is often used in surgical skin grafting procedures. In this study, we used a standardized in vivo porcine burn model to obtain terahertz (THz) point-spectroscopy measurements from burns with various severities. We then extracted two reflection hyperspectral parameters, namely spectral area under the curve between approximately 0.1 and 0.9 THz (−10 dB bandwidth in each spectrum), and spectral slope, to characterize each burn. Using a linear combination of these two parameters, we accurately classified deep partial- and superficial partial-thickness burns (p = 0.0159), compared to vimentin immunohistochemistry as the gold standard for burn depth determination.

We have developed a terahertz time-domain polarimetry (THz-TDP) system by applying frequency modulation to electro-optic sampling detection in a nonlinear crystal. We characterized the precision of this system in determining the polarization angles to be 1.3° for fixed time delay, and 0.5° for complete time-domain waveform. Furthermore, we calculated the Jones matrix of the optical components used for beam propagation to calibrate the induced systematic error. The advantages of employing this calibration approach are demonstrated on a sapphire crystal investigated at different sample test positions in transmission configuration, and using high resistivity Si, AlN and quartz in reflection geometry. The new THz-TDP technique has the advantage of not using any external polarizers, and therefore is not constrained by their optical performance limitations, such as restricted bandwidths and frequency-dependent extinction ratio. Finally, the THz-TDP technique can be easily implemented on existing time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) systems.

The accuracy of clinical assessment techniques in diagnosing partial-thickness burn injuries has remained as low as 50-76%. Depending on the burn depth and environmental factors in the wound, such as reactive oxygen species, inflammation, and autophagy, partial-thickness burns can heal spontaneously or require surgical intervention. Herein, it is demonstrated that terahertz time-domain spectral imaging (THz-TDSI) is a promising tool for in vivo quantitative assessment and monitoring of partial-thickness burn injuries in large animals. We used a novel handheld THz-TDSI scanner to characterize burn injuries in a porcine scald model with histopathological controls. Statistical analysis (n= 40) indicates that the THz-TDSI modality can accurately differentiate between partial-thickness and full-thickness burn injuries (1-way ANOVA, p0.05). THz-TDSI has the potential to improve burn care outcomes by helping surgeons in making objective decisions for early excision of the wound.

Terahertz imaging often involves seeing through inhomogeneous and highly scattering media. We propose a wavelet multiresolution analysis approach to mitigate the scattering effects and produce highly-resolved reflection spectral images for chemical mapping through turbid media.

We present two improved mixed media models for solutions of polar liquids in the THz regime. Simple effective media models do not consider intermolecular interactions or hydrogen bond network distributions in polar liquid solutions, and therefore yield inaccurate estimates of the effective dielectric functions. We present two new models: a volumetric modification to the Bruggeman equation and an effective time constant calculation in Debye-like relaxations. Furthermore, we will discuss the limitations of each model in predicting the dielectric functions.

We present a handheld THz-TDS scanner for use in clinical settings and non-destructive testing applications. The ASOPS scanner is based on a gimbaled galvanoscanner and custom-designed f-$\theta$ lenses to achieve telecentric imaging in a 3D-printed housing. Imaging results from Bohler star calibration targets for determination of spatial resolution will be shown. We will also present non-destructive testing of airplane wing samples. Finally, in the full paper, application of this scanner in clinical diagnosis of skin burns will be presented.

Topographic imaging of corneal tissue would be a prominent indicator of many ocular diseases. Using the time of arrival of a reflected THz beam from the surface, we develop a setup where depth profiles can be extracted from a spherical target. Topographic information associated with the contour of corneal tissue can be extracted, such as radius, surface height and thickness variations. In this study, we image several 3D printed spherical targets to determine the lateral and axial resolutions, and asymmetrical characteristics of our imaging system.

The accuracy of current burn triage techniques has remained between 50-70%. Accordingly, there is a significant clinical need for the quantitative and accurate assessment of partial-thickness burn injuries. Porcine skin represents the closest animal model to human skin, and is often used in surgical skin grafting procedures. In this study, we used a standardized in vivo porcine burn model to obtain terahertz (THz) point-spectroscopy measurements from burns with various severities. We then extracted two reflection hyperspectral parameters, namely spectral area under the curve between approximately 0.1 and 0.9 THz (−10 dB bandwidth in each spectrum), and spectral slope, to characterize each burn. Using a linear combination of these two parameters, we accurately classified deep partial- and superficial partial-thickness burns (p = 0.0159), compared to vimentin immunohistochemistry as the gold standard for burn depth determination.

We report on the development and performance characterization of a telecentric terahertz spectroscopic scanner using an f-θ objective lens and a single gimballed scanning mirror for image formation. We derived a beam steering transform to compensate for the intercoupling of the gimballed mirror axes and the distortions caused by an imperfect scanning lens. We characterize the optical performance of the system in both the time and spatial domains, demonstrating a constant diffraction-limited imaging resolution over the entire field of view. Finally, given the large depth of focus of the objective lens, we demonstrate the broadband imaging capability at different depths using a Boehler star target. This imaging setup has the potential to be miniaturized into portable form factors for field-deployable scenarios.

Introduction Whether the depth and healing of scalds and contact burns are similar is controversial. Prior studies have not compared scalds and contact burns using identical temperatures and durations of exposure limiting direct comparison. We hypothesized that when exposed to similar temepratures and durations of exposure, burns caused by hot water and contact with hot metal would be similar. Methods Multiple 2.5 or 5 cm diameter standardized cutaneous burns were created in two anesthetized female domestic pigs (~45kg) using a brass bar or circulating heated water in replicates. The temperatures were controlled and kept constant using thermosensors. In one pig, the temperature was kept constant (95 degrees C) while the duration of exposure varied (5, 10, 15 sec.) In the second pig, the exposure time was kept constant (10 sec.) while the temperature of exposure varied (70, 80, 98 degrees C). Burns were covered with a topical antibiotic ointment and frequent dressing changes were performed for 4 weeks. Periodic punch biospies were taken to determine burn depth immediately after injury, percentage burns reepithelialized within 21 days, and depth of scar at 28 days. Analysis was performed using analysis of variance. Results When temperature was held constant, duration of exposure (5, 10, and 15 sec.) was associated with scar depth (2.1 vs 3.8 vs 5.0 mm respectively, P=0.001) and there was a trend for an association with burn depth (2.0 vs 2.2 vs 2.3 mm respectively, P=0.10). When exposure duration was held constant, temperature (70, 80, 98 degrees C) was associated with scar depth (0.6 vs 1.7 vs 3.6, P< 0.001) but not significantly associated with burn depth (1.2 vs 1.5 vs 1.7 mm respectively, P=0.21). For each pig a comparison of burn and scar depth by device generally showed that depths were greater for scald than contact burns although not significantly greater. Only scar depth in the first pig showed a difference with a significance of less than 0.10 (2.9 for contact vs 4.1 mm for scalds, P=0.08). After controlling for temperature the difference between scalds and contact burns was statistically significant (marginal means 3.0 for contact burns, 4.3 for scalds, P=0.008). When combining data from both pigs and controlling for temperatures and duration, scar depths for scalds (2.7 mm) vs contacts (1.9 mm) showed a significant difference (P=0.02) while burn depth was not quite significant (1.7 vs 1.5 mm, P=0.07). Almost all burns were reepithelialized by day 21. Conclusions Burns created in swine with circulating hot water tend to be deeper and result in deeper scars than those created by contact with a brass bar when controlling for temperature and duration of exposure. Applicability of Research to Practice Scalds of similar temperature and exposure times result in deeper scars than contact burns.

Perturbation of normal corneal water content is a common manifestation of many eye diseases. Terahertz (THz) imaging has the potential to serve as a clinical tool for screening and diagnosing such corneal diseases. In this study, we first investigate the diffusive properties of a corneal phantom using simultaneous THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) and gravimetric measurements. We will then utilize a variable-thickness diffusion model combined with a stratified composite-media model to simulate changes in thickness, hydration profile, and the THz-TDS signal as a function of time. The simulated THz-TDS signals show very good agreement with the reflection measurements. Results show that the THz-TDS technique can be used to understand water diffusion dynamics in corneal phantoms as a step towards future in vivo quantitative hydration sensing.

In this study, we discuss the application of a cepstrum-based signal processing technique to reduce the effect of volume and rough surface scattering. The filter is applied to images of pellets made of large polyethylene particles with a metallic object hidden inside. Results show improved signal-to-noise in higher frequencies after applying the filter to THz images.

We present experimental results from the application of our new terahertz full-polarimetry instrument, to measuring the thickness of ultra-thin films in a multi-layer coating system. While the standard time-of-flight measurement is limited by the bandwidth of the THz pulse in the minimum thickness resolution of the film that can be resolved using a time-domain system, the new terahertz time-domain polarimetry (THz-TDP) instrument can extend this limit to a few micrometers. This unique ability to measure the thickness of ultra-thin films (approximately λ/1000) is due to the accuracy of THz-TDP to resolve the polarization direction of the THz field within 1 degrees.

We have designed and fabricated a terahertz full-polarimetry instrument, based on control of terahertz polarization in a gas-plasma source, and fast measurement of polarization direction and chirality of the terahertz field in the time-domain without using any external polarizers. We will present details on this new experimental technique including synchronization and calibration of the measurement apparatus against wire-grid polarizers, and derivation of the Jones matrix representation of the propagation optics. The new terahertz time-domain polarimetry (THz-TDP) system extends the polarimetry frequency range to the full bandwidth of gas-plasma sources, and offers accuracy of approximately 1 degrees.

We demonstrate the application of THz-TDS in characterizing the severity of burn injuries in a live animal model. 2nd and 3rd degree burns were studied immediately and 72 hours post-burn. A new diagnosis criterion was verified against histopathology.